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OUTLINES, 


OF  THE 


3LECTURES 


©H 


emMISTET,  MINERALOGY.  &  BEOLOBT, 


DELIV ERED  AT  THE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  NORTH-CAROLINA, 


For  the  use  of  the  Students. 


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RALEIGHs 

jpBLVTED  BY  J.  GJLEB 

£810. 


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ORDER  OF  THE  COURSE* 


I.  Introductory  Lecture* 
%.    Attraction. 

3.  Light, 

4.  Caloric. 

5.  Galvanism. 

6.  Atmospheric  Am, 

7.  Water. 

8.  Alkalies, 

9.  Earths. 

10.  ^Natural  History  of  C   1.  Mineralogy.* 

the   Earths.  £  2.  Geology. 

II.  Acids,  including  their  Bases  and  combi- 

nations with  the  Alkalies  and  Earths* 

12.  Metals. 

13.  Mineral  Waters. 

14.  Vegetable  Chemisty. 

15.  Animal  Chemistry. 

16.  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


*  Mineralogy  of  the  Inflammables  and  Ores  given  in  connexion  with  their- 
Chemical  History. 


INTRODUCTION, 

|.  DEFINITION  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

'Natural  ffistorifc--"  ascertain*  the  different  bodies  in  the 

universe,  and  arranges  thetn  systematically,"--  respects  facts. 

Natural  Philosophy"  investigates  the  changes  which  bodies 

produce  by  their  action  on  each    other,"— respects    causes,— 

divided  into  Mechanical  Philosophy  aud  Chemistry. 

Mechanical  Philosophy—"  treats  or  those  changes  m  natural 
bodies  which  are  accompanied  by  sensible  motions." 

Chemistry—"  treatsot  those  changes  in  natural  bodies  which 
are  not  ac  ompanied  by  sensible  motions."  (Thomson  1,  1.8. 
Black  1,  llJ^-^-distinction  between  the  objects  of  the  mechan- 
ical philosopher  and  the  chemist  illustrated  by-  a  river  ofc 
water. 

2.  HISTORY. 
Ch-mistry  existed  among  the  ancients  as  an  art— distinction 
between  an  art  and  a  science.     Alchemy— how  distinguisned 

.    from  Ch traced  back  to  Julius  Firmicius   Maternus  of  the 

5th  century— three  objects  of  the  alchymist=>— Alchymy  in- 
troduced from  Arabia  into  F.urope  by  the  Crusaders— Basil 
Valentine— P  irace  sus— rise  of  Lord  Bacon's  philosopny-* 
Beecher  and  Stahl—  Pnlogistic  Theory  of  Combustion— -whet* 
cvevdirowy-rjt-Encyclopzdia  Britannica— Brand's  Third  Dif 
sertation.) 

3.  APPLICATIONS  TO  MEDICINE  AND  THE  ARTS. 

1.  To  Medicine.  Composition  of  animal  substances  ascer- 
tained—changes produced  in  substances  by  their  Chemical 
action  on  each  other— a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  affinity  ne- 
cessary in  the  preparation  of  medicines— analysis  of  poisons, 
(Cooper  on  Medical  Chemistry.)  g. 

2.  To  the  Arts.,  Chemical  principles  involved  in  the  arts 
of  dyeing,  soap-making,  cookery,  pottery,  glass-making  and 
agriculture— artificial  mineral  waters— steam  engines  &  steam- 
boats—safety-lamp.     (Henry  1,  \7.—Parkes  I. J 

4.  MOTIVES  TO  STUDY  CHEMISTRY. 

1.  Explanation  of  natural  phenomena. 

2.  Moral  and  intellectual  advantages  arising  from  the  stu#/ 
of  the  works  of  Nature. 

iw       *  The  references  are  made  for  the  convenience  of  the  Student,  where  it  Ttt%f 
™.    he.  -well  to  consult  some  work  besides  the  Text  Boole 

tX) 


®  ATTRACT  IOXc 

PART  I. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

tHvision  of  a  system  of  Chem'v.try  into  general  doctrines 
and  particular  bodies — bodies  either  simple  or  compound — de- 
finition of  each — number  of  simple  bodies  known ^Thomson 
S,  25.J—  elements  of  the,  ancients — general  doctrines,  so  called 
because  their  influence  extends  to  all  bodies — include  Attrac- 
tion, Light,  Caloric,  and  Galvanism. 

D1V.  L— OF  ATTRACTION. 

Different  kinds  of  Attraction — Gravitation,  Magnetism  and 
Electricity  assigned  to  Mechanical  Philosophy,  because  they 
act  on  masses',  and  at  sensible  distances — that  kind  which  acta! 
On  particles,  and  at  insensible  distances,  assigned  to  Chemistry. 

A  mass  made  up  of  either  homogeneous  or  heterogeneous 
particles — examples  of  each. — Aggregation,  4t  that  force  by 
^/hich  similar  particles  are  united  in  one  body.,,; — Affinity,  l  that 
force  by  which  different  particles  are  united  iii  one  hody*"— > - 
Constituent  pans— integrant  parts — examples  of  each — Cohe- 
sion, "  that  force  which  unites  the  integrant  particles  irto  a 
mass."  C Conversations  on  Chemistry  >  1,  18. — 'Murray's  Ek- 
inents  1,  32 — Henry  1,  39. Jj 

Cohesion  strong  in  solids — weak  \n  fluids — -none  in  gases— > 
itfh'y  mercury  does  not  adhere  to  a  glass  tube  ? — why  water 
does  adhere  ? — why  the  surface  of  mercury  is  spherical? 

Cohesion  overcome  in  two  ways-i— why  beat  overcomes  it— 
why  a  liquid  overcomes  it- — process  forms  solution — a  fluid 
cfissolves  a  solid  by  overcoming  its  cohesion— a  solid  some- 
times dissolved  bv  air — by  another  solid — principle  ? — Cohe- 
sion resumed  when  the  causes  of  separation  are  removed — ex- 
amples— a  solid  recovered  from  a  solution  either  in  a  regular 
or  an  irregular  form — when  regular,  crystallization,  ( Mat~ 
ray  1,  2-i.J 

Of  Chemical  Attraction  or  Affmtiy. 
Def. — difference  between  combination   and   mixture — sepa- 
ration  of  ingredients  bv  filtration— decomposition— Chemical 
Analysis  and  Chemical  Synthesis  defined — -importance  oi  this 
subject  to  the  Chemist.     ( 'Murray  1,  32.J    ,   . 

LAWS  OF  CHEMICAL  ATTRACTION. 

1st  Law. — Chemical  affinity  takes  place  only  between  bodies  of  a  dif- 
ferent nature. 

2d  Law.— Chemical  amnity  takes  place  only,  between  the  minutest  par- 
Ikies  cf  bedies. 


ATTRACTION,  ^ 

Com  hi  nation  promoted  by  rasping,  filing,  grinding,  pulver- 
17:111 2;,  &c— why  ? 

■5d  Law.— Che  nical  Aflinity  takes  place  not  merely  between  two,  but 
also  between  three,  four,  or  any  number  of  bodies. 

Most  compounds  complicated — animals  and  vegetables. 
4th  Law.— Insolubility,  high  specific  gravity,  efflorescence,  and  elasti- 
city, by  their  tendency  to  separate  bodies,  oppose  chemical  combination 
am!  favor  decomposition. 

Insolubility  the  effect  of  cohesion— effect  produced  by  di- 
minishing the  quantity  of  the  solvent—by  presenting  to  a 
substance  in  solution  another  body  with  which  it  forms  an  ia« 
soluble' compound.  . 

How  great  specific  gravity  opposesthe  union  of  two  suhq 
stan  e£%ow  counteracted..  /%«jp»«*^*  _  . 

■  Fluorescein  e   defined— how  it  opposes    combination— infla-    /!■    . 
enwsnudl.   S-T+£»~ *fif+*4  **^*^  <U~~j™^-m4v  ^uMj^k 

Elasticity,  an  important  agent— what  kind  of  bodies  does  it  ^ 

infriehce  most  ?  — why  an  aeriform  body  combines  more  readi "Va"'^>^ 
ly  with  a  fluid  than  with  another  aeriform  body— why  pressure.  "*"' 
and  cold  promote  the  combination. 

5th  Law.— When  bodies  combine  together,  they  undergo  a  change  of 
density,  and  a  change  of  temperature,  y^    •     ^^  (~ 

Change  of  temp,  on  increasinj^'density— on  dimaiishin^^/^'* 
it.     (Murray  1,  38. J  /        , 

(Mh  Lavi—  FJhe  Gompouiids  formed. by    chemical  affinity,  possess  new  p£j- /fx 
oioperties,  which  are  different  from  those  of  the  constituent  parts.  c*s>*Ma''  ' 


PW.,U^   "»'V"  *"r - —  -  ■■  _        .JO.'   y Aj 

"t'lrtinjoa  of    the  old  chemist's  on  the  intermediate  nature  ok  '^Q^ 
.compounds— is   the  change  of  properties  equally   great  in   alt"     J 
cas»s  ? —-example  opi  slight  change— of  a  great  change— gene- 
ral rule  respecting  the  extent  of  the  change  of  properties, 
\    7th  Law.— Bodies  have  different  degrees  of  affinity  for  each  other. 
kp—^'g/ Importance,  of  this Tlaw— why  important— how  a  compou.id 
|P  M offwo  pruicipies  is  decomposed  by  a  third—chemical  tests— 
B-.rtholiet's  views  of  the  influence  of  quantity  on  chemical  af- 

ffioity single  elective  attraction— double  elective   attraction-* 

h >w   a  compound  of  two  principles  is  decomposed  by  another 
compound  of  two  principles. 

5th  Law.— The  force  of  chemical  affinity  is  estimated  by  the  force 
tyhich  i|  necessary  to  separate  the  substances  which  enter  into  comb*;- 

nation':  '  .  ,,._,.. 

Method  of  ascertaining  by  experiment  the  relative  pfhmties^ 

of  several  substances  for  a  given  body— Bergman's  Tables  of 

Affinity. 

Proportions  in  which  bodies  combine. 

1,  No  limitation— salt  with  any  quantity  of  water,* 

/ 


&  LIGHT.— CALORIC. 

2.  Limited  on  one  side — water  saturated  with  salt- 

3.  Limited  to  one  proportion. 

4.  Two  ingredients  combine  in  two,  three  or  four  propor- 
tions^— these  proportions  definite. 

mv.  II.— OF  LIGHT. 

Nature  of  L. — two  theories — that  of  Descartes,  Huygens, 
and  Euler — that  of  Newton — proofs  thist  it  has  a  distinct  ex- 
istence irom  heat. 

Chemical  Effects. 

Light  is  capable  of  entering  into  bodies*  and  of  being  after- 
wards extricated  rvithout  alteration.  Examples — hsn  hung  up 
to  dry — meat  in  a  pujresf^nt  state — ioat  sugar  and  pieces  of 
marble  struck  together  in  tfte?-cltfrk — snow—rotten  wood — the 
diamond.  .    ,*         •  •*,       • 

Light  combines  with  various  bodies'^  changes'  their  properties? 

1.  With  Vegetables.  How  their  properties  are  altered  by 
growing  in  the  dark—tendency  of  such  plants  towards  the 
light — changes  in  the  properties  oi  vegetables  produced  by 
light,  e.  g.  cabbage,  celery,  potatoes — Prot.  Robinson's  expt. — - 
will  the  light  of  a  lamp  produce  the  same  change  as  that  ol  the 
sun?     C Black  1,  372.) 

2.  With  Animals — phosphorescence  of  ignes-fatui — the  glow- 
worm— luminous  appearance  of  the  sea — chiefly  affects  the 
surface — variety  of  complexion  oi  the  human  species—effect 
in    bleaching   certain   substances..     {Encyclopaedia  Brit.  Art, 

*  Light:1  j 

VAY.  III.— OF  CALORIC. 

Distinction  between  the  terms  heat  and  caloric. 
1.  Nature  of  Caloric. 

T\vo  theories- — 1.  That  the  heat  of  any  substance  is  produ- 
ced by  a  vibratory  motion  of  its  particles — 2.  That  heat  is  a 
substance  sui  generis-^-supposh'ion  that  heat  is  the  same  with 
light — HerschelL's  expts.  on  the  different  sorts  of  rays  emitted 
by  the  sun — three  sorts — their  names.  (Thomson  1,  31. — 
Conversations  on  Ch.  1,  32. J 

2.  Effects  of  Caloric. — Expansion. 
H.  expands  all  bodies — comparative  degree  of  expansibility 
of  solids,  fluids  and  gases — air  eight  times  as  much  as  wa- 
f  r — water  45  times  as  much  as  iron.  (Thomson  1,  <>8j — flu- 
ids more  expanded  by  equal  additions  of  heat  as  they  approach 
the  boiling  point — why  ? — not  so  with  gases— why  I 


CALORIC.  7 

Practical  application  of  the  property  of  p-fyamion. 
Tyring  of  wheels — gridiron  pendulum,  (Black,  I,     8- J  phe- 
nomena explained  —cracking  of  glass  by   sudden  heating   or 
cooliug— method  of  cracking  glass  ior  use. 

THERMOMETER. 

Def.  "  a  measure  of  heat"-  gen  ral  description  and  princi- 
ple-—history-— air  therm,  of  Sanctorio  — why  quicksilver  is  best 
adapted  for  the  thermomctrical  fl.  id— two  fixed  points  agreed, 
on-  Fahrenheit's  therm. —how  graduated—why  it  begins  at 
32°  below  the  freezing  point  of  water—  what  constitutes  the 
principal  difference  between  thermometers  ?—  Celsius's  used 
in  Sweden-  -how  'graduated-- Reaumeur's-  -Spirit  of  Wine 
ther.  used  to  measure  great  degrees  of  cold-  -why  ? 

Wedge  wood's  Pyrometer—construction-graduation— at  what 
degree  of  Fah.  it  begins---howmauy  degrees  of  Fah.  one  deg» 
equals  {Cavallo')  Points  to  be  remembered. 

1.  Freezing  and  boiling  pts.  of  Water. 

2.  do.  do.  of  Mercury. 

3.  Medium  temp,  of  the  globe.    *} 

4.  Temp,  of  the  human  body. 

5.  Greatest  heat  yet  measured. 

6-  Greatest  cold  do.      (Henry  2,  S54.J 

Remarkable  exception  to  the  law  of  expansion  in  the  ease 
of  water — beneficial  consequences  of  this — phenomena  de- 
pending on  this  property  of  water  --heaving  of  pavements- 
bursting  of  cannon  -  expansive  force  ot  freezing  water  27720 
lbs.— cause-— a  few  metals  subject  to  the  same  exception* 
( Black  l,-40. J 

3.  Ra'ia'ion  of  Caloric- 

Repulsive  property  of  C.  —constant  tendency  to  an  equili- 
brium-—division  of  C.  among  different  substances  laid  side 
by  side  at  different  temperatures—  C.  distributed  in  two  ways* 

Radiation  ki  the  emission  of  heat  in  right  lines  from  the 
Surfaces  ot  bodies." 

Refection — laws  of  reflected  heat  the  same  as  those  of  light 
-—bright  metallic  surfaces — why  vessels  of  this  kind  are.  diffi- 
cult to  heat — why  they  are  suitable  for  imprisoning  heat — me- 
tallic  tea  pots — Pictet's  expts.  with  metallic  mirrors— effect 
produced  by  placing  a  mass  of  ice'ia  one  focus — Leslie's  expts. 
—radiating  power  of  different  coloured  surfaces— rtwo  tin  ket- 
tles one  bla  kened — tin  canister  with  different  coloured  sides 
*-  differential  thermometer — object — construction — how  is  it 
sensible  to  any  change  of  temp,  in  the  focus,  but  not  to  any 
change  in  the  temp,  of  the  room  ?— what  surfaces  absorb  heat 


> -tic   =-  /, 


vf 


Q  CAI-QRXC. 

best — Dr.  Franklin's  expt.  with   different   coloured    cloths—- • 
Leslie's  expts.  on  this  subject,  by  coating  the  focal  bail—  sur- 
faces which  radiate  best,  absorb  best -surfaces   which  reflect  | 
best,  absorb  worst.     (Henry  1,  90.     Murray  i,  151.     Conver* 
satioiis  1,  43. J 

Practical  Applications— tinroastess--  Fire  Places  -should 

a  the  sides  be  perpendicular  or  oblique  to  the  back  ?■  -smooth  or 

f      /    rough?—  advantages  of  constructing  fire  places  small---sizc  of 

v"'  the  draught— -what  vessels  are  most  suitable  for  confining  heat  ? 

—for  diffusing  it  ? 

Apparel— two  objects,  to  screen  us  from. the  external  heat, 
or  to  preserve  the  internal—-!.  In  Summer  light  coloured  cloth- 
ing best  in  the  sun— dark  coloured  in  the  shade- — why  negroes 
bear  the  heat  better  than  white  people.  2.  In  Winter — nrinr 
cipal  object  to  confine  the  heat  of  the  body— what  colours  best« 
adapted  to  this  purpose— -\vhy  negroes  do  not  bear  the  cold  so 
well  as  white  people. 

4.  Conducting  Powers  of  Bodies. 

When  heat  is  said  to  be  radiated--  when  conducted — what  is 
jneant  by  good  conductors  ?-  -by  bad?-  what  class  of  bodies 
sre  the  best  conductors — Dr.  Ing-enhouz's  txpt.  with  a  box 
and  diff.  metallic  cylinders  coated  with  wax  ( iiennj  1,  93J-- 
conducting  powers  of  the  metals  — 

1.  Silver. 

2    Gold. 

3.  Copper  and  Tin  (nearly  equal  ) 
*      4.  Platina,  Iron,  Steel,  Lead,  (much  inferior  to  the  others;) 
*^  / 9.  "is,  the  conducting  power  proportioned  to  the  density  ?—  ty/o 
properties  essential  to  vessels  tor  heating  fluids— two  ditto  for 
diffusing  heat  --why  iron  stoves  are    so    effectual  in  heating 
apartments— cooking  stoves—  stones,  brick,— which   make  the 
warmest  houses  ?  which  most  suitable  to  apply  to  the  feet  of 
the  sick  -  use  of  bricks  in  furnaces-— Glass-  —Dry  Wood—  Char' 
coal—  used  in  lining  furnaces — Plumbago—  use  for  crucibles— -    • 
Straw—- straw  hats---use  for  ice  houses-r-in  protecting  garden 
.vegetables  from  the  frost-  -conducting  power  of  light  substan- 
ces, wool,  hair,  &c— polar   animals  —why    clothes   keep  us 
jvarm  —snow. 

Fluids-— carrying  power— how  is  heat  propagated  in  fluids— 
are  fluids  absolute  non-conductors— -to  what  part  of  the  vessel 
.should  heat  be  applied— -broad  stills. 

Air— What  takes  place  when  a  hot  body  is  exposed  to  the 
air — when  a  cold  body  ?—  conducting  power  of  confined  air— ,£ 
Rouble  tin  vessel— why  winds  and  breezes  feel  cool. 


CALORICS  9 

aemktVbns  of  heat  and  cold—  supposition  of  "  particles  of 
co-Id"-— real  cause  of  the  sensations — experiment— -why  some 
substances  feel  colder  than  others  at  the  same  temp  .-—should 
a  linen  or  a  woollen  cloth  be  wrapped  round  a  cake  of  ice  ?--- 
painful  sensation  on  touching  frozen  mercury. 

5.    Theories  respecting  the  Distribution  of  Caloric. 

1.  Pictet's  —repulsive  power  of  the  particles  o  .  w  eti 
accumulated. 

2.  Prevosfs—- exchange  of  C.  between  all  contiguous  bodies , 
( Thomson  i,  65. J 

Does  C.  produce  heat  on  si  transparent  medium  ?  effect 
when'  a  combustible  substance  is  interposed  —how  heat  is 
preserved  on  the  surface  of  the  earth — why  it  does  not  rise 
to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere— term  of  congelation — figure  de=» 
scribed  by  all  these  points  taken  together— why  heat  clues  not 
accumulate  oh  high  mountains. 

5.  Cold.- 

Argument  against  considering  cold  a  mere  negative  princi" 
pie—common  explanation  of  this  difficulty,  f  Thomson  1,  114— 
Henry  1,  91 )  —reasoning  disaporoved.  f  Hurray  t,  144— 
Annals  of  Philosophy  7,  223. J—  Terrible  eff  cts  of  cold  in 
northern  latitudes—  artificial  cold — lowest  degree  vet  produc- 
ed—fret-zing  mixtures — method  of  producing  the  most  in* 
tense  cold. 

6.   Fluidity. 

How  mav  every  solid  become  fluid— every  fluid  solid- 
example  in  the  case  of  water-smelting  p>int  defined — uniiormi 
in  the  same  body — different  in  different  bodies. 

What  are  the  melting  points  of 


X 


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1.  Ice,  ,    3   T  illow,  S.  Tin,  6.  Copper,  ¥£  * 

2.  Olive  Oil/   A.  Beeswax,  6.  Lead,  -  -    7.  Iron.       J£jt 

^K  Quicksilver  not  admitted  among  the  metals  by  Boerhaave— 
whv  ? 

Investigations  of  Dr    Black  to  discover  the  cause  of  fluidi- 
ty—erroneous ideas  formerlv  entertained  respecting  the  liquei 
faction  of  ice — a  remarkable  circumstance  attending  tbe»'ique°  ?<->.^»v~w> 
faction  of  ice— Experiments  (Black  I,  115.)   fist. )  "TTponndj       ^2* 
of  water  at  33°  and  a  pound  of  ice  at  32°— exposed  to  equal  .         j     . 


additions  of  heat  in  3  wlrm  room— water  rose  to  40*  in  half 
,m  hour— ice  rose  to  40°  in  twenty  one  half  hours— heat  en- 
tered both  at  the  rate  of  7°  every  half  hour- Therefore,  21  x  7 
=147  entered  the  ice  to  raise  it  S*~  Hence  147  -  8  =  139  must 
have  combined  with  the  ice  to  turn  it  into  water— 2d.a  pound  ot 
watr  at-17-2  mixed  with  a  pound  of  ice  at  32-resultmg  temp.  J 
I  tent  Heat  defined— "  that  quantity  of  caloric  wni<h 
bodies  absorb  in  changing  their  form" -.applied  to  fluids  -that 
quantity  of  c.  which  combines  with  the  solid  out  of  which  the 
fluid  is  formed,  constituting  its  fluidity,  but  does  hot  raise  its 

temperature.  ,  ,  . 

Different  in  different  bodies— what  is  meant  by   saying  the 
latent   heat   of  tin   is   500  '—distinguished  from,  the  melting  • 

^^r^PTii\cTicAL  Applications.— Chilling  winds  while   skow 
C*C^        is  melting^-watef  remaining  fluid  below  32— why  ?— explana- 
tion of  freezing  mixtures— heat  given  out  by  congelation- 

7.  Vapour. 
inform  bodies— distinction  between  a  vapour  and  a  gas- 
vapour  invisible— not  mist— process    of  ebullition— reason  ot 
the  imitation— boiling  point  defined— boiling  points  ot 

1.  Ether,  3   Water, 

2.  Alcohol,  4.  Mercury. 

Influence  of  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  boiling  point,  il- 
lustrations of  this  pressure— discovered  by  Galileo— Torncel- 
lean  vacuum  how  formed— principle  of  the  barometer -at 
wha*  point  will  water  boil  in  vacuo— evils  that  would  result 
were  this  pressure  removed— why  ether  boils  under  the  recei^ 
ver  of  an  air-pump—  Effects  produced  on  the  human  svstem 
bv  diminishing  the  atmospheric  pressure— in  ascending  moun- 
tains—firing heavy  artillery— Thermometer  for  measuring 
heights— Effect  produced  on.  the  boiling  point  by  increasing 

*  tHe^oressure— Papin's  Digester— boiling  water  can  be  raised 
#id*  to  212— why  ?  erroneous  ideas  formerly  entertained  on 
this  subject— consequences  that  would  follow  were  these 
ideas  correct— how   Dr.  Black  ascertained  the  latent  heat  ot 

,  steam,  (Black  1,  ^-latent  heat  of  steam  940°  why  va- 
pour produces  cold-why  dry  wood  is   better   for  fuel   than. 

8  Solvent  power  or  steam— dissolves  horns,  hoofs,  &c — - 
steam  washing  machines-Steam  Kitchens-heating  apartn  et.ts 

bv  steam.  ,,       ,  ,.  -i 

Expansive  pow-.r  or  steam.     Illustrated  by  the  eo-ipt'« 
^-Digester— candle  bombs— effect  of  moisture   on  -casin  g 


£ALORIC.  ii 

qnqukls—  accidents  produced  by  spitting  in  a  caldron  of  melt- 
ed copper. 

Steam  Engine.--- Inventor— who  constructed  the  first  en- 
gine (Encyclopaedia  Brit.  American  Journal  /Science  1, 157  J 

—  principle  of  Savaryys  Engine— -a  vacuum  formed  in  the  re- 
ceiver by  the  condensation  of  steam—water  rises  into  the  re- 
ceived about  25  feet  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosph.re — -forced 
up  the  remainder  ot  the  way  bv  the  pressure  of  steam  let  in 
fiom'the  boiler-  -defects— waste  of  fuel  -danger  of  explosion— 
cannot  raise  water  more  than  100  feet— Nexvcomen's— water  rais- 
ed by  a  lc  ver — this  raised  and  depressed  by  the  piston — a  va- 
cuum formed  below  the  piston  and  the  atmosphere  forces  if ^ 
down — steam  admitted  below,  balances  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  the  piston  is  dragged  up  by  the  preponderancy  of 
the  other  arm  of  the  lever — great  defect  of  Newconien's  en- 
gine, the  expense  of  fuel — 120  000  bushels  coal  a  year— -£  of 
the  steam  wasted,  chiefly  by  admitting  cold  water  into  the 
cylinder  to  condense  the  steam. — -Watt's — two  peculiarities — 

(1)  steam  condensed  in  a  separate  vessel — (2)  piston  forced 
down  by  steam — Savary's,  Newcomen's  and  Watt's  Engines 
compared  in  principle — (*)  Water  raised  25  feet  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  then  forced  up  60  or  70  feet  farther  by  steam, 

(2)  Piston  freed  dozvn  by  atmospheric  pressure,  and  dragged 
up  by  the  preponderancy  of  the  opposite  arm  of  the  lever. 

lerms  on  which  Watt  and  Bolton  erect  engines — force  of 
an  engine  .how  estimated — distinction  between  high  and  low 
steam — .which  species  of  boiler  most  advantageous — why  ? 
safety  the  principle  question — arguments  for  each  compared. 
(Rees"1  Cyclopaedia  Art    "Steam  Engine"} 

^Steam  Frigates — intended  for  the  defence  of  the  coast, 
harbours,  he. — advantages  over  ships  of  war. 

Steam  Mills — particularly  useful  where  water  courses 
are  wanting. 

Steam  Packets  on  the  Mediterranean. 

8.  Natural  Evaporation, 

Vapour  formed  at  all  temps. — distinction  between  the  terms 
evaporation  and  vapq^ation — evap.  takes  place  at  the  s  •'- 
face — form  of  vessels--e  fleet  of  agitation-  el  isticity  decreases 
with  the  temp. — oil  of  vitriol  and  fixed  oil  exception^. 

Evap.  produces  cold— why  ?— why  wet  clothes  hung  out  to 
dry  are  frozen  when  the  air  is  above  32— why  it  is  unhealthy 
so  sit  in  wet  clothes---why  sprinkling  the  floor  cools  the  room 

—  porous  vessels— wine  coolers  -  manufacture  of  ice  at  Be- 
nares— circumstances  which  contribute  to  heighten  the  effect- 
haw  travellers  on  the  desert  keep  water  coqL     {Black  1,202) 


cfa/tAec.'*^ 


48  CALORIC, 

ejects  of  perspiration- -why  iangerous  to  expose  oneself  to  $ 
current  oi  air  when  in  .t  state  <»$  perspiration-— high  heat  which 
the  human  system  tan  sustain--  fcxpts-  of  Dr.  Fordyce  and 
others.  {Encyc.  Brit.  Art^  "  Heat— 'Phil.  Transactions  Vol. 
ICth.) 

Effects  of  evap.  on  the  economy^of  Nature--  Dr.  Watson's 
expt.-  great  quantity  of  water  thus  raised  into  the  atmrt-- 
phere-  what  becomes  of  it  ?--, clouds,  rain—  solution  theory- 
terms  d<  fined,  solution,  solvent,  saturation,  precipitation— dew, 
"frost  and  snow-  why  moisture  collects  on  a  cup  of  cold  wa- 
ter-- on  the  windows— smoke  from  a  hole  in  the  ice-t-benefi- 
cial  effects  of  moisture  cm  the  atnua^phere—evils  of  too  muck 
moisture.  />>e  ^£^^t^*-^a^ 

9.  Quantity  of  Caloric  in  Bodies. 

C.  appears  in  two  states-  -what  is  meant  by  free  C— what 
by  combined  ?— bodi<  s  contain  heat  not  sensible  to  the  thermr. 
•— ic«:  contains  it  —difficult  to  determine  the  point  oi  absolute 
cold  —attempts  of  Di.  Irvine  and  others— results  various—- 
not  t  milled  to  credit  comparative  quantity  oi  C.  more  easi- 
ly asc-  rtained  —a  pound  of  water  and  a  pound  of  mercury 
placed  side  by  side  in  a  hot  oven — how  much  more  sensible 
fieat  would  the  mercury  acquire  than  the  water  in  a  givep 
tiuir;. 

Specific  Caloric—  "  that  quantity  of  caloric  which  a  bo- 
dy has  compared  with  another  of  the  same  weight"— -or  "that 
quantity  of  caloric  which  a  body  requires  to  raise  its  temp.  * 
any  number  oi  degrees,  compared  with  another  body  of  the 
same  weight" — how  both  definitions  amount  to  the  same  thing 
^—distinction  between  specific  and  latent  Caloric—  modes  of 
investigating  the  specific  C—  (l)  that  of  Crawford  by  min- 
ing bodies  at  different  temps.— Examples?    ' 

1.  Water  at  100°     ~\ 

with  C  resulting  temp, 

Water  at  50°  3 

2   Water  at  156°     7  ... 

i       t/r  ,  /AO         c  resulting  temp.     ' 

Mercury  at  40°         y 

(2)  That  of  Lavoisier*  and  La  Place  by  means  of  the  Ca- 
lorimeter— principle  and  i  construction  of  this  instrument. 

Capacity  of  bodies  for  Caloric— the  power  of  stow- 
ing away  heat  so  as  to  render  it  ii  sensible  to  the  ther.— in- 
crease of  capacity  produces  cold— most  perceptible  in  aeriform 
Jbodifs  —fountain  of  Hicro  in  Hungan  —  {Aikiti's  Die.  lt2ic) 
diminution  of  capacity  produces  heat-— condensing  syringe 


GALVANISM.  %$ 

10.  Sources  ofCaloic. 

i   The  Sun,  3.  Pe.cussUo,  5    Chemical  Action.         y* 

2.  C.mdensadon,       4.  Friction,  6.  Ei^c v rich sj[     It^JJtMH* 

Sux— -range  of  natural  heat  n«jt  more  than  about  160°  — max- 
imum of  summer  heat  higher  in  northern  than  in  siTutherii  la- 
titudes—causes that  prevent  the  accumulation  of  the  >olar  heat- 
how  high  a  spot  may  he  heated  by  the  sun's  Ravs  when  pro- 
tected from  a  current  of  air.  {Murray  1,  18 °)-— small  range 
of  heat  the  human  system  can  bear  without  artificial  aid  --about 
10  degrees—these  at  a  higher  standard  in  hot  than  in  told 
climates  —great  heat  produced  by  concentrating  the  sun's  rays. 

Condensation  —hammering  iron-  -suiphuij;  acid  and  wa- 
ter -  condensing  svringc 

Percussion—  collision  of  a  flint  and  ^e  f—  coining  money  — 
heat  produced  proportioned  to  the  condensation— heat  ow- 
ing to  this  cause.     (-Thomson  1,  135.) 

Friction  -Savages  kindle  fires  by  rubbing  pieces  of  dry- 
wood  together  —forests  set  on  fire  by  the  friction  of  dry 
limbs-  -axles  of  water  wheels— -how  accounted  for— cause  ob- 
scure- -Murray's  theory.     (Murray  1,  183.) 

Chemical  Action-— an  extensive  source— includes  com- 
bustion—-fermentation-— change  of  temp,  a  common  phe- 
nomenon of  mixture. 

Electricity— -capable  of  producing  the  most  intense  heat. 

General  reflections  on  the  suoject  of  heat. 

DIV.  IV.— OF  GALVANISM. 

Important  discoveries  made  by  men  of  observation  from 
trifling  incidents- — Galvani — incident  that  led  to  his  discove- 
ry— time  when  made — ^first  experiments  o«  frogs — supposed 
the  electricity  inherent  in  the  animal,  and  the  discharge  to  be 
effected  by  making  a  commun?<.au>>n  between  a  muscle  and  a 
n^rve  —  hypothesis  otherthrown  by  Voita — general  principle  of 
Voltav  that  electricity  is  excited  by  the  conflict  of^hvo  metals 
and  becomes  sensible  when  they  are  separated  ( Singer* $  E- 
lect.ro-Chemistry,  306. J  Some  metals  more  excited  by  contact 
than  others — silver  ant)  z<nc  or  copper  and  zinc  good  com  i- 
nations — all  the  substances  employed  in  Galvanic  expts  con- 
ductors— perfect^  metals,  charcoal  j  plumbago — imperfect,  fluids 
of  different  conducting  powers  (Cavailo  2',  246)— These  sub- 
stances combined  form  a  simple  Galvanic  circle* 

1st  order — two  perfect  conductors  and  one  imperfect— e.  g. 
a  piece  of  silver  and  a  piece  of  zinc  in  the  mouth. 

2d  or  er — two  fluids  of  different  kinds  with,  a  metal  inter* 
posed — example,  ale'  druid*  from  a  pewter  cup* 


14  GALVANISM. 

,  Phenomena  explained  on  Galvanic  'principles* — why  iron  bolts 
are  unsuitable  for  the  copper  sheathing  of  shipb— inscriptions 
on  pure  lead  more  durable  than  those  on  mixed  metals — sol- 
dered seams  corrode — a  piece  oi  zinc  in  water  corrodes  fas- 
ter when  in  contact  with  iron  (Cavallo  2,  245,  Singer  308.)— 
Galvanic  action  on  the  pivots  oi  time-pieces  (Annals  of  Phi- 
losophy 7,  161.  J 

Voltaic  Apparatus. 

Object  to  accumulate  the  electricity,  and  render  its  effects 
more  striking. 

i.   Voltaic  Pile—  construction—how  discharged. 

2.  Couronne  des  tasses---a  chain  oi  cups  or  wine  glasses,  each 
containing  a  piece  of  silver  and  a  piece  of  ?inc,  the  silver  in 
one  glass  connected  to  the  zinc  in  the  other  by  a  metallic  wire 
---how  discharged. 

3.  Voltaic  Battery— of  different  forms  for  different  purposes 
-•-boxes  with  soldered  plates  the  most  convenient  of  any  single 
form — copper  and  zinc — how  arranged — how  connected — how 
discharged — what  fluid  is  interposed  between  the  plates — ends 
of  the  battery  in  different  states — zinc  positive,  copper  negative. 

Three  different  objects — 1.  Combustion  or  deflagration — 2, 
E fleets  on  the  animal  system— 3.  Decompositions— power  of 
producing  combustion  or  deflagration  depends  on  the  size  of 
the  plates — of  producing  shocks,  and  decompositions,  on  the 
number.     (Davy's  Elements  83.     Murray  1,  237. J 

Great  Batteries  oi  Engand — of  the  Royal  Institution  200 
boxes,  2000  prs.  of  plates — astonishing  effects  (Davy  85J— 
Children's  battery  of  great  plates — d*  flagrating  effects  (lb  $4.^) 

1.  Experiments  on  the  combustion  of  charcoal,  metals,  &c. — > 
2.  Effects  on  the  animal  system — mode  of  exhibiting  them— r 
why  necessary  to  moisten  the  skin — powerful  effects  produc- 
ed by  Aldini  on  dead  animals  (Singer  335 J — on  the  body  of 
a  culprit  by  Dr.  Ure. 

4.  Chemical  agencies  of  Galvanic  Electricity. 
Decomposition   of  water — elements   evolved   at  a  distance 

from  each  other— general  law  discovered  by  Hisingerand  Ber- 
zelius  that,  when  compounds  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
galvanic  influence,  combustibles,  alkalies  and  earths  pass  to  the 
negative  pole— -oxygen  and  those  substances  in  which  it  predo- 
minates, to  the  positive — forces  operate  at  a  great  distance- 
decomposition  of  salts,  earth  and  oxids — minute  quantity 
,A  detected — decompositions  complete — theory  of  the  decompo- 
sition of  bodies  by  Galvanism. 

Proofs  that  Galvanism  is  identical  with  Electricity  (Mur- 
ray ly239.     Conversations  1,  134.  J 


ATMOSPHERIC    AI$.  *# 

Theories  of  the  excitement  and  accumulation  of  electricity 
fey  the  Voltaic  apparatus.  . 

;.  Explanation  on  electrical  principles— how  excited— hour 
accumulated.  C Murray  1,  241.  fifelty  1,  169.  jIihw/*  o/ 
Ihilosophy,  3,  32  £s?  b5.     Conversations  1,  127.J      . 

2.  Explanation  on  Chemical  principles.  S.  Hares  new  the- 
ory.     Difficulties  attending  both  theories.  _ 

Geological  phenomena  resulting  from  the  agencies  ot  Gal- 
vanism. 


PART  II. 

4   • 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  INDIVf- 
DUAL  SUBSTANCES. 

DXV.  I.— OF  ATMOSPHERIC  AIR. 

Objects  peculiar  to  mechanical  philosophy— to  Ch — ( CavaU 
to  1,  282. J— simple  or  compound  ?^-composed  of  two  gases. 

Gases— term  borrowed  from  the  Germans— "  solid  particles 
in  a  state  of  very  minute  division  united  with  caloric"— base  of 
a  ffas— distinction  between  the  terms  oxygen  and  oxygen  gas 
—has  the  base  of  a  gas  ever  been  obtained  separate  ?— when  *w 
does  a  gas  become  fixed  7— Pneumatic  Chemistry— method  of 
iveighing  and  managing  the  gases— apparatus  ( Henry  1, 115  J 
i.  Oxygen  Gas. 

Etymology  of  the  term— how  obtained  from  manganese- 
degree  of  heat  required— only  a  portion  of  the  oxygen  separa- 
ted from  the  manganese  by  heat— why  ?— how  obtained  from 
nitre— degree  of  heat— precautions— how  obtained  from  man- 
ganese by  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid— rationale. 

Properties— 1.,  In  supporting  combustion — experiments* 

2.  That  principle  of  atmospheric  air  which  supports  animal 
life.— Can  animals  exist  in  any  kind  of  air  that  does  not  con- 
tain oxygen  ?— etfeef:.  on  small  animals  contained  in  a  jar—in 
which   will  they  live  longest,  in  a  jar  of  oxv.  or  of  common 

air  ? consequences  were  the  atmosphere   entirely   composed 

0f  it— medicinal  applications— mode  of  breathing  the  gases. 

3.  Strong  tendency  to  the  positive  pole  of  the  Galvanic  bat-  . 
tery— impresses  th  s  property  on  numerous  compounds— hence 
their  decomposition 


/y%<M** 


■L  ^L4J-itt,^^t^Tj 


&fr*fci$r>*f  ' 


^5  wArE&» 

2.  Nitrogen  or  Azote. 

Origin  of  the  names — how  formed — can  it  be  wkhdrawa 
from  the  oxvgen  ? — heavier  or  Ighter  than  air  ?  CuC&^i*^ 

Properties. — On  flame— on  animals — why  a  necessary  con- 
stituent of  the  atmcspi  re. 

3.  Composition  of  Atmospheric  -Air. 

One  of  the  elements  of  the  ancients — oxygen  first  discover- 
ed by  Priestly,  Aug.  1,  1774 — called  by  him  dephlogisticat'd 
air — by  Lavoisier,  vital  air  -by  Scheele  empyreal  air-  reason  of 
these  several  names  (Brandos  Third  Dissertation  85 — Aikiii's 
Die.  1,  121 J —  Complete-  janaK  sis  and  synthesis  first  p>  r'<  nr.  d 
by  Scheele  (Murray  t.25bj — supposition  thai  the  air  was-,  sa- 
lubrious in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  oxygtn  —  Eudiometry 
Ai'*  ->ci» nee  of  determining  the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  a  giv- 
en quantity  of  air" — result  of  numerous  observations  on  the 
composition  of  air— proportion  of  the  constituents. 

Are  the  elements  in  a  state  of  chemical  combination  or  me- 
chanical mixture — can  a  lighter  gas  ascend  in  a  heavier? 

Specific  gravity  of  air — weight  of  100  cubic  inches. 

4.    Theories  of  Combustion. 

Distinction  between  comb,  and  ignition — extensive  agencies 
of  combustion— 

Theory  of  Phlogiston.  Beecher — Stahl — etymology  of 
the  name— principles  of  the  theory—separation  of  phlogiston— 
htat  and  light  how  accounted  for — products  called  calces- 
how  the  cal5  of  lead  differs  from  pure  lead — how  the  pute 
lead  is  revived  from  the  calx — rationale.  (Thomson  1,  123. 
Brand's  Diss.  35  J — general  reception  of  this  theory.  Objec- 
tions to  it — its  existence  incapable  of  proof — substances  gain 
weight  by  combustion — overthrown  by  the  discovery  of  oxy» 
gen — maintainecibv  Dr.  Priestly  to  the  last. 

Theory  of  Lavoisier.  Brought  forward  in  1775 — L. 
proved  that  oxvgen  is  absorbed  in  the  calcination  of  metals-*— 
that  the  increase  of  weight  is  exactly  equal  to  the  quantity  ab- 
soih  d — that  this  can  be  recovered  from  the  calx  and  so  com- 
bined with  nitrogen  as  to  form  common  air — 2d  proof  bv  burn- 
ing wire  in  oxygen  gas — oxygen  disappeared  which  was  found 
combined  with  the  iron — similar  results  with  sulphur  and 
phosphorus — light  and  heat  how  accounted  for  ( Lavoisier's M- 
lements  64.     Murray  1,  271.      Thomson  1,  121.J 

Div.  I|-_0F  v  ATER. 

F.vtent  to  which  W.  is  diffused — one  of  the  elements  cf  -:bc 
ancients — now  known  to  be  a  compound. 


WATER.  17 

1.  Composition  of  Water. 

Ana^vsis  by  passing  steam  through  a  red-hot  gun  barrel  — 
change  i  i  e  iron  turnings  or  wire— production  of  an  i.>fl,»m- 
nia  tie  gas — rationale  ot.the  decomposition.  fJLavoi/siet*s  £- 
lenient*,  111. J 

Analysis  by  Galvanism.     ( Henry  1,  101  ) 

Pi  oof  of  the  composition  ot  Water  bv  synthesis — union  of 
tbe  el  mentThow  effected — first  executed  bv  Cavendish  (~Ai- 
k;n^  Die.  2,  472.  Thomson  2,  23J — supposrvm  that  the  wa- 
re-- produced  was  held  suspended  by  the  ^a>>es  how  disprov- 
ed— product  on  burtring  hvdrugen  in  ox's  g^n —  he  oxvgen  and 
hvOrogen  both  wholly  disappear — a  loss  of  only  4  grs.  in 
7249  1-3  grfr.     (Black  2,  372.     Parkes  457  J 

2.  Hydrogen. 

How  made  from  iron  filings  and  sulphuric  acid — rationale— 
a  case  ot  predisposing  affinity,  (Murray  1,  53.  American 
journal  of  Science  1.  43  4-.J 

y  Properties — 1.  Combustibility — a  combustible  distinguish- 
ed fro  -i  a  supporter  of  combustion — can  hyd.  burn  without 
the  presence     f  rxvgen? 

2.  Levity -tK\^\\.:  «t  of  all  ponderable  substances— how  nuch 
lighter  than  .nr — 100  cubic  inches  weigh  2i  grs. —  application 
of  this  principl  to  the  construction  ot  Balloons.  Principle 
on  which  a  balloon  ascends-1— History  of  balloons  {Hutt&ifs 
Math.  £s?  Phil.  Die.)  Montgolfu-rs  balloons,  how  constructed 
seros  itio  i — Risi^r — superiority  of  hydrogen  over  common 
aii — method  of  regulating  the  ascent  and  descent — uses  of  bal- 
Icons.  \ 

3.  Detonation  with  common  air — rationale  of  the  explosion 
of  the  air  pistol.        v 

4.  Detonation  with  Oxygen — explosion  by  the  electric  spark 
— re«». dt — explosion  bv  pressure  ( Henry  1,  140  J 

5.  Effects  on  animals  by  respiration — when  pure— mixed 
with  common  air — accident  of  Rosier. 

6;  Musical  t q ties— common  explanation — disapproved. 

Water  thrown  on  aiauilding  in  flam  s  supposed  to  prom-  t£ 
combustion — effect  of  a  jet  of  steam  thrown  on  a  jet  of  flu  e 
issuing  from  a  small  orifice,  or  on  the  flame  of  a  candle,  or 
lamp  (Amer.  ^Journal  Science  Nos>  1  £s?  4. J 

3.  Compound  Blozv-Pipe. 
Invented  by  Dr.  Hare — construction — effects — difference  in 
bodies  with   regard  to  fusibility— can  any  substance  resist  the 
action  of  this  instrument— can  the  heat  produced  be  estimated 

C 


$$  ALKALIES. 

in  degrees  of  the  scale — cause  of  the  production  of  such  in- 
tense heat — invention  rot  accidental  hut  arose  from  philoso- 
phical reflection — danger  of  explosion  how  obviate  J — feeb  e 
flame  produced  by  burning  hydrogen  in  oxygen  made  an  ob- 
jection to  Lavoisier's  Theory  of  Combustion — reasoning  dis* 
approved  (Thompson  1,  30  ) 

4.  Chemical  Properties  of  Water. 

.Absorption  of  gases  by  W  — in  its  natural  state  always 
contains  air — expelled  by  boiling — -insipidity  of  Witter  that  has 
been  boiled— -snow-v,  ater —  how  different  from  common  water-— 
Unfit  for  drinking — destruction  to  fish — why?1 — quantity  of  gas 
absorbed  increased  by  pressure  and  cold — W.  takes  up  the 
same  volume  of  condensed  gas  as  of  gas  under  ordinary  pres- 
sure (Murray  1,   298. J 

Relation  of  water  to  i\erDs. 

Different  states  of.  water — peculiarities  of  spring  water,  well 
Water,  rain  water  and  snow  water. 

Distillation-  A  method  of  obtaining  water  pure — salt 
Water  of  the  sea  rendered  iresh— experiment  performed  by  or- 
der of  the  King  of  France  on  the  salubrity  of  distilled  sea  wa- 
ter (Amer.  Journal  of  Science  1,  172. ) 

Uses  of  water — as  a  beverage — as  a  solvent — on  vegetation 
—in  regulating  the  temperature  of  the  globe — in  promoting 
the  means  of  commercial  intercourse. 

DIV.  III. -OF  ALKALIES. 

Signification  of  the  term-r-number  cf  the  alkalies — simple 
or  compound  ?* — nature  of  their  composition — by  whom  dis- 
covered. 

Properties.  Taste— effect,  when  caustic,  on  the  skin-** 
meaning  of  the  term  caustic—  effect  on  vegetable  blue  colours— 
on  yellow  colours— these  colours  used  as  tests  for  alkalies— 
what  blue  liquor  most  convenient — what  yellow — test  papers 
-"-effect  on  the  caustic  alkalies  on  oils. 

1.  Ammonia. 

Called  fhe  volatile  alkali  and  haitshorn — why  ? — why  called 
Si  "*?  onia — in  the  state  of  a  gas — how  made  {rem  Muriate  of 
Arhmon.  and  Quicklime — rationale. 

Properties.  Smell— suffocating  when  pure  -pleasant  when 
fttixed  with  air — effect  on  flame— on  the  colour  of  the  flame 
of  a  candle — -on  the  vegetable  test  colours — hew  much  lighter 
than  air — affinity  for  water — liquid  ammonia     how  prepared. 

Decomposition  by  tbi  : k .  ;ric  sfljark  (  Henry  \  IS6J — by 
passing  amraan*  through,  a  rtu-hoi  porcelain  tube— by  expiod* 


ALKALIES.  4$ 

^ng  by  means  of  the  electric  spark — by  heating  with  metallic 
pxids — rationale  of  the  last  decomposition — reasons  fro. n  ana- 
logy to  suppose  ammonia  to  be  a  metallic  oxide— .nature  oftne 
proof  that  it  is  so. 

Ammonia  spontaneously  produced  from  decaying  animal 
substances — test  for  ammon. 

Uses— in  medicine— in  dying— in  a  variety  of  chemical  o- 
perations— effect  of  ammoniacal  fumes  on  plants — why  fish  af- 
ford rich  manure.  , 

2.  Potash.  }% 

Why  called  the  Vegetable  Alkali— is  it  confined  to  the  ve- 
getable kingdom— why  called  potash— potash  of  commerce  im- 
pure—purified by  freeing  it  of  carbonic  acid  by  means  of  quick- 
lim.-  (Aikirts  Die.  2,  240.J  rationale. 

Why  it  must  be  kept  in  close  vessels. 

Properties— effects  on  the  skin— used  as  an  escharotic 
(Aikin's  Die  2,  2-43)— attraction  for   water— used  to  dry  the 

UE(?e?VosiTiON— the  first  alkali  tfcat  was  cTcomposed— 
how  effected — result — by  whom  obtained. 

Potassium.  Gay  Lussac  and  Thtnarrf's  method  of  mak- 
ing it  by  passing  melted  potash  over  slips  at  iron  heated  to 
Whiteness  in  a  gun  barrel  \Henrij  1,  367  Ai  kin's  Die.  Appen* 
drx  34)  rationale— properties— specific  gravity— combustibili- 
ty— action  on  water—  act-ism  on  the  metallic  oxids— all  ;ts  ef- 
fects owing  to  its  powerful  affinity  for  oxygen  (Hennj  1,  182.) 

3.  Soda. 

Method  of  preparing  pure  Soda  the  same  as  for  potash-  • 
properties  much  tht  same — points  of  difference. 

Sodium — metallic— properties  like  those  of  potassuim. 

4.  Soap. 

Principle  on  which  it  acts  as  a  cleanser — a  compound  of  oil 
and  caustic  alkali,  but  contains  the  latter,  in  excess—why  pre- 
ferable to  alkali  alone.  Quality  of  soap  proportioned  to  that 
of  the  materials— of  wharare  the  finest  varieties  made  ?— Cas- 
tile soap  used  in  medicine— why  speckled— soft  soap  made 
with  potash — hard  soap  with  soda. 

When  soap  is  made  from  wood  ashes  necessary  to  add  quick- 
lime—why— salt  added  to  soft  soap  to  make  it  hard— rationale. 


§|Q  BARTHS, 

DIV.  IV.— OF  TIIK   EARTHS. 

1.  Barytes,         "\ 

c    T  •  ■■     >  Alkaline  Earths. 

3.  Lime,  { 

4.  Magnesia,     J 

5.  Si'ex,  "\ 
G.  AUiriiine,  ( 

7.  Zircon,  y  Earths  Prcper. 

8.  Ghiciue,  | 

9.  Ittria,  J 

Why  the  first  four  are  called  alkaline  earths — are  the  earthy 
jr-et  with  purr  in  nati'rt—  appearance  when  pv,rt — -insolubility 
*=~M-is  proput}  essential  to  the  purposes  t'hey  serve — alkaline 
tfrrths  « 5 i g h i U  soluble — the  cithers  scarcely  at  ail — iniusmihtyi 
*  Dr.coNPosii  iom  Alkaline  earths  all  been  distinctly,  aua- 
h  s  d  and  shewn  to  be  metallic  oxids—  first  amalgamated  with 
quicksilver  in  the  Galvanic  circuit— quicksilver  distilled  .11 — 
ii ,'iicauons  respecting  the  composition  of  the  other  eaiths  si- 
md-  r  but  not  equaliv  decisive  {Murray  1,  336)— why  unm- 
.fiammablc,  qf» *  +^+*  f*M+-*A**L*  t* JRL  &hCfy*~~ 

1.  Barytes*  .  . 
Name' — not  found  pure  in  nature^— preparations  of  B.  made 
for  tests  of  sulphuiie  acid — in  ail  its  forms  except  the  sulphate, 
a  violent  poison. 


2.  Strontites* 


%w 


Properties  similar  to  those  of  Barytes—- different  colours  im- 
parted to  flame — not  poisonous. 

3.  Lime, 
.Found  very  extensively  in  nature  combined  with  acids,  par- 
ticularly the  carbonic  and  sulphuric- 
How  1\  i  med  irom  the  carbonate — either  from  marble,  oys- 
ter shells,  or  limestone— most  of  the  lime  of  commerce   from 
the  last — mode  of^b^rmng  {Atkins  Lie.  2,  47.    Black  2    3  S-2.) 
uprmiES.     Action  ot  water — whence   the    heat    in    the 
si  I  tug  of  lime — wbj   it  is  in  the  state  of  a  dry  powder1  after. 
si     ing  —  water  solk'inVd  equals  1 1!  e  weight  of  the  lime — ^more 
/"s<  lid  than  i"  the  state  '  f  ice—  Ijvdrate  defiru  d — air  slacking— 
iccf^-i  l **\\ hj%  the  causticity  is^irjVpaired — vessels  set  on  fire  by     dmit- 
ze*Ut-  rf'&i'itig  water  among  casks  of  l:me — waggon's  set  on   fire. — Cans" 
>,.        I'       tic  but  less  so  than  potash    and  soda— rused  by  tanners — acce- 
lerates the  dissolution  of  nnimal  remains. — Alkaline — hence  use 
in  soap-m:.''     g  —  Infusible 'by itself?  Vet.  promotes    the   fusion. 
i)f  other  earths — hence  used  in  separating   metals  from  their 


EARTHS.  SI 

ores — rationale.     Sparingly  soluble  in  water— -preparation  of 
lime  waler — medicinal  uses  of  lime""  water. 

Mortar — Roman  mortar— importance  of  good  mortar  — 
qualities  of  g  >od  mortar  {Black  2,  194)  —kind  of  sanri— pro-  /  fr  *>&-. 
portions — use  of  beating — should  be  made  and  kept  under co- 
v  e  rs  oiii  e  t  i  jug_b  e  lore  using — why  mortar  becomes  hard  after 
it  is  applied — use  of  lime  in  Agriculture— on  what  kind  of 
lands"  most  beneficial.  •  y     ..  .        0       y 

In  what  states  found— two  kinds  of  M.  sold  at  the  apothe- 
caries "~  di  (Terence  between  Magnesia  Alba  a  n  d  c  a  lei  n  e  1   M  a  g.  /K^  *-*- 
— infusibihty — has  it  ever  been  fused  I     Use  in   medicine   as 
an  antacid.  J*  ' 

5.  Silex.  / 

Name — extensively  found  in  nature — in  what  substances  — 
how  to  prepare  pure  sil  x  or  silica-— its  appearance    -insoiubi- 
*j     lily — infusible — -indestructible— solvents—unites  with  th#nx- 
,.     ed  alkalies  and  forms  .glass. 

Glass — discovery  according  to  Piiny  ( Rambler  No.  9)  — 


gredients — ui  wjiat  stat.e_is  the  si 
lor  the  finest  ill nt  piass^-metallic 


was  it  manufactured  among  the  Romans  ? — two  principal  iu- 

-diversily  of  materia* — • 
rgTas's-— metallic  oxids  —use  of  manganese  — 
different  colours  at  different  degrees  of  heat  -removes  the  co- 
lours imparted  by  oxids  of  iron --red  lead — imparts  softness — - 
proportion  of  'silex  and  alkali. — Manufacture  of  glass  vessels 
■ — manual  dexterity — mode  of  forming  a  tunbier — t  bottle  — 
annealing — Bologna  phial — Prince  Rupert's  drops  (A?.'/'  v  Die 
1,49a)  causes  of  the  inequality  of  glass — different  k!in!  -f 
glass — composition  of  green  glass — cause  of  the  colour — cr.rivn 
glass — composition — -mode  of  making  window  glass — two  ne- 
.thods — composition  ol  white  Jlint  gla£— contains  metallic  ox- 
ids,  especially  of  lead — soft — grinding  ot  glass — plate  glass  .or 
mirrors— cast  on  a  table — afterwards  polished.,  . -      a  ,         * 

6.  Alumine.  ' 

Pure  clay—common  clay  contains  a  mixture  of  silex — how 
formed  from  alum — plasticity — a  good  soil  depends  on  a  due 
mixture  of  silex  and  alumine— evils  when  silex  is  in  excess  —  e- 
vils  when  alum  ne  is  in  excess — pipe  clay — porcelain  oli\  — 
composition  of  each— others  -alumine  found  pure  in  the  sapphire. 
Most  rocks  and  mineral  substances  made  up  of  silex  and  a- 
lumine — rocks  when  called  siliceous — when  aluminous— por- 
celain clay  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  granite  rocks — in 
what  parts  of  the  Unit£d^|B^may  we  expect   to   find  it—- 


%%  EARTHS. 

alumine  imbibes  water — parts  \\ >  Xw  it  slowly  by  heat  and  cons 
tracts— -hence  its  use  in  Wedgwood's  Pyrometer — very  infu- 
sible— impresses  this  character  on  aluminous  earths  and  clays 
•—hence  bricks  and  crucibles  capable  o\  enduring  a  high-heat. 

Brick  Making  and  Pottery,  ancient  arts — imperfect  and 
Tude  at  first — -best  earth  tor  brick —-advantages  of 'slow  dry- 
ing— cause  of  the  red  colour— of 'the  partial  vitrification. 

C 
%in 

c    porcelain— introduced  into  Europe  from  China— yp 
of  the  French  porcelain — Clay  selected  with  great  care — mus$ 
burn  white- — suspended  in  water — kn  aded  \\\:—- turned  >  ti  the 
wheel— baked — now  in  the  state    ■!  bismi$--&f\g\irts  applied— =• 
glazed  by  powdered  feldspar — finest  figures  painted  by  hand,    # 
(Black  2^  330) 

Colours  imparted  by  metallic  oxids— blue  by  what— -gareea 
•-violet— purple.  * 

%  7.  Z>rcon. 

^  8.  Giucine*  .*> 

i*jf*         $.  ittria.  t. 

.  i  - 


*«-t 


J 


■\ 


1 


it 


**k 


4  . 


•*•* 


ACIDS.  *%() 

DIV.  V.— NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  EARTHS, 

Including  Mineralogy  and  Geology.— V.  Appendix. 
DIV.  VI.— ON  ACIDS. 

PROPERTIES. 

1.  Taste. 

2.  Effects  on  vegetable  colours.  _         *       :^g.        tf 

3.  Effects  on  alkalies.  /»t*-U?«i«  «^-^0-  ^   i/^^V****- 

4.  What  class  of  bodies  do  they  form  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides  ? 

5.  Attraction  for  water. 

Must  a  body  exhibit. all  these  properties  to  be  classed  a- 
mongst  the  acids  ?  (Thomson  2,  62 j— Great  use  in  decom- 
posing bodies  and  promoting  chemical  researches — opinion  of 
the  old  Chemists  respecting  the  cause  of  their  solvent  power 
( Aikin  1,  10J  result. when  a  combustible  body  is  buna  in 
oxygen-ydo  any  substances  exhibit  acid  properties  that  do  not-  '"  -  -  " 
contain  oxygen  ? — composition  of  the  acids — Jpases  simply  and 
double — latter  belong  chiefly  to  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms. V 

Nomenclature  of  the  acids.  Who  formed  it?  principles — 
(1)  with  regard  to  simples  long  known — ditto  newly  discover- 
ed (2)  compounds — additions  to  the  name  of  the  base  of  ic  or 
ous  (Henry  .  -08.  Lavoisier  92^  —method  adopted  in  treat- 
ing of  tht  acids,  viz. 

1.  The  base  of  the  acid. 

2    The  base  united  with  oxygen  forming  the  acid. 

3.  Combinations  of  the  acids  with  the  earths  and  alkalies 
forming  salts. 

4.  Combinations  of  the  base  with  other  solids, 

5.  Comi^iations  of  the  base  with  hydrogen  e.  g.  sulphur, 
sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acids,  sulphates  and  sulphites,  sul- 
phurets  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

I.    OF  SULPHUR   AND  ITS  COMBINATIONS. 

1.  Sulphur, 

Mostly  from  the  mineral  kingdom  (Aikin  2  352J— -  In  beds 
— Stcily — salt  and  gypsum — volcanic  regions — Soifatar-a — a 
deposit  around  springs — in  the  state  of  pyrites. 

Properties.  Effects  of  heat — fusion  and  sublimation- 
flowers  of  sulphur— combustion  in  oxygen— product. 


38^  ACIDS. 

2.  Sulphuric  Acid. 
Why  called  oil  of  vitriol  (Parke's  Essays  2,  378 J — compo- 
sition— how    manufactured — specific    gravity — attraction    for 
water — uses.  !  * 

3.  Sulphurous  Acid. 

Formed  by  the  slow  combustion  of  sulphur— by  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  metal — rationale — suffocating  fumes — why  collected 
over  nurcurj — action  on  colours — use  in  bleaching  (Parkas 
Ess  ay  9^,  1 54.  J 

Cv'jt,  c*^  affit  *JH  '  %&&** 

Import  of  the  term  salt — number  of  the  salts  (Thomson  2, 
305 J — nomenclature — ic  changed  into  ate  and  ous  into  He. 
Terms  defined — neutral,  sub  and  super,  tfflorescence,  deli- 
quescence, watery  lusion,  water  of  crystallization — effect  of 
salts  on  the  bailing  points  of  fluids— Crystallization — an 
extensive  process  in  nature — variety  and  regularity  of  crystals 
i — rules  for  ;onoucting  the  process — proportions  in  which  dif- 
ferent quantities  of  an  acid  combine  with  a  given  base-rriHus.- 
trated  by  sub  salts  and  neutral  salts. 

Sulphate  of  Soda.  Common  name — how  manufactured 
— taste — change  by  exposure  to  the  air — by  heat — sudden 
crystallization  from  a  concentrated  solution— rationale  (An- 
nals of  Philosophy,  1  .J 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia.      Common  name — abundant  in 

certain  springs,  particularly  at  Epsom — what  property  does  it 

impart  to  spring  waters  ? — artificial    preparation    from   strong 

sulphuric  acid  and  pure  magnesia — phenomena  attending  their 

union — taste  of  this  salt— medicinal  properties. 

Sulphate  of  Lime         ")      f        ,  „.     ■**■•        i     ~ 
Cl         .  a    ,.    ,       5-  referred  to  Mineralogy. 

Sulphate  of  Alumtne  J  GJ 

5.  Sulphites — their  composition. 

6.    Sulphurets, 

Composition — native  metallic  sulphurets — called  pyrites- 
mistaken  for  gold — artifiiiaf  sulphurets  called  livers — why  ?— 
sulphurtt  of  iron  prepared  by  exposing  equal  parts  of  sulphur 
and  iron  filings  to  i  glowing  heat — must  be  kept  in  a  close 
bottle — why  r — sulphurets  of  the  alkalies. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen.  Composition— how  formed— 
rational- — odour — liquid  sulphuretted  H.  how  prepared — pre- 
cipitatt  s  metallic  osices — kind  of  metal  ascertained  by  the 
colour  of  the  precipitate — effect  on  vetetable  blues — is  it  an 
acid  I — natural  sources-  mineral  waters — decayed  animal  re- 
mains.   (Henry  1,  260 — Murray's  System^  2,  279. J 


~ffc~et&i(—  u^irifo*"-4*-- 


£*-£<— 


ACIDS.  27 

II.    OF    CARBON    AND    ITS    COMBINATIONS. 

0*4*.  s/*lt  Ju&t*-**  -       *  •  Carbon.  . 

,/Term  explained — base  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances—impurities of  charcoal — how  purified — formed  in 
melted  lead— in  sand — how  manufactured  in  the  large  way — 
different  kinds. 

Properties.  Colour — imbibes  gases — irfusibility — con- 
ducting   power combustibility —  indestructibil.ty charred 

stakes  of  the  Thames — charring  of  casks  and  posts — how  foul 
water  may  be  purified — rancid  oil  and  butter — spoiled  meat- 
teeth  powder — effect  on  ardent  spirits  by  filtering  through 
charcoal — lamp  black,  how  prepared — ivory  black — (  Aikin  1, 
IfviJ— combustion  of  charcoal  in  oxvgen — product — proofs 
that  the  diamond  is  pure  charcoal  (1.)  when  burnt  in  oxygen 
—it  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  the  weight  of  which  is 
equal  to  both  the  diamond  and  the  oxygen  employed  (2) — 
iron  converted  into  steel  by  being  heated  in  contact  with  the 
diamond.     (Murray  1.     Aikin  1,     31  J 

2.  Carbonic  Acid. 

Proportion  of  the  ingredients — first  gas  known  distinct 
from  common  air,  discovered  by  Dr.  Blaik,  1756 — effect  on 
the  caustic  alkalies — methods  of  obtaining  it : 

1.  By  psssing  common  air  through  red  hot  charcoal. 

2.  By  pouring  dilute  muriatic  acid  on  carbonate  of  lime. 

3.  By  heating  i  halk  or  limestone  powder  in  an  iron  tube. 
Rationalr  of  each  method.     Test  for  carbonic  acid. 

aIT  Properties.  Srj^gravity — effect  on  burning  bodies — on 
respiration — suffocation  by  exposure  to  the  fumes  of  burning 
charcoal— in  wells — how  to  detect  it  in  wells — accidents  from 
descending  into  such  wells — Grotto  del  cane  --  choke  damp — ■ 
recovery  ot  suspended  animation — (Gorham  1,  386J — ab-  ■ 
sorbable  by  water — how  the  quantity  absorbed  may  be  in-t  ^  < 
creased — (fcj°  Water  will  absorb  the  same  quantity  of  com- 
pressed  gas  as  of  gas  under  ordinary  pressure—  (Henry  1, 
219J — affinity  for  water  slight  and  easily  overcome— native 
carbonated  waters — sparkle — artificial  carbonated  waters — 
(soda  waters) — how  manufactured  for  sale — prepared  in  the 
small  way — medicinal  virtues — acid  properties  of  this  sub- 
stance feeble— aiKmties  weak— overcome  by  all  the  other 
acids. 

Sources.  (1)  Combustion.  What  becomes  of  the  great 
quantities  thus  thrown  into  the  atmosphere — effect  on  vegeta- 
tion. 


ri.s 


28  ACIDS, 

(2)  Fermentation.  Sparkling  of  beer,  cider,  and  other  fer- 
mented liquors — great  quantities  produced  in  brewer's  vats— 
bottling  of  cider. 

(2)  Respiration.  Effect  produced  by  blowing  through  lime 
water— changes  on  a  confined  portion  of  air  by  respiration — 
on  the  blood.  (Thomson  4,  470,  Chemical  Conversations, 
2,  230.     Murray's  System,  4,  465. ) 

%  fto  u/itk,  *.  &*&)      3-  Carbo  ic  0xide-  ^  ***/* 

Import  of  the  term  oxide  as  applied   to   a   gaseous  body — 

carbonic  ox.  contains  half  as  much  oxygen  as  carbonic  acid— 

hence  may  be  obtained  by  abstracting  from  carbonic  acid  half 

1  its  oxygen.     This  done  by  heating  together   iron   filings   and 

chalk — rationale.  -  - 

Properties.  Combustible — blue  flame — effect  on  respi- 
ration— product  of  the  combustion — seen  in  a  common  fire 
and  blacksmith's  forge. 

4.  Carbonates^^^^^—^---^—-'' 


Distinction  between  the  perfect  carbonates  and  sub  carbo 
natts. 

Sub-Carbonate  of  Ammonia.  Other  names — n  anufac- 
turt-d  by  the  distillation  of  animal  substances,  such  as  horns, 
hoofs.  &c.  rational. — does  it  exist  m  animal  substances  ready 
formed,  or  is  it  produced  during  the  distillation<^raiionale. 
r>  Formed  by  direct  union  of  its  gaseous  elements — appearance 
^"-^whtn  thus  formed — smelling  bottles-  spirits  of  hartshorn- 
US'*  in  medicine,  ( Aikin  1,  258  Murray* s  System  2,  237. 
Gorham  1,  38^. ) 

Sub-Carbonate  of  Potash.  Chiefly  of  vegetable  ori- 
gin—how -  btained  from  ashes, '  (Aikin  1,  258.  Thomson  1, 
2'5  J  in  what  countries  manufactured — pearl-ash  how  differ- 
ent hem  pot-ash — formation  of  the  perfect  carbonate  by  mix- 
ing it  wiri-  Curb.  Ammonia  in  solution  and  distilling-  ration- 
ale, ( Murray  ••■  Aikin  1,  260.J  Medicinal  applications 
under  the  i«am^s  of  salt  of  tartar  and  salt  of  wormwood— used 
in  calculus,  &e.« — m  making  bread — rationaler=ritu  making 
soap  aid  glass.  Economy  of  wood  ashes  recommended — \ 
how  they  may  most  advantageously  be  employed  as  a  ma- 
nure. 

Sub  Carbonate  of  Soda.     Nitre  of  the  Scriptures  Na-p  rtA 
tioc   Tikes  - 1  Egypt — .btained   from  sea  weed — kelp  and  ha-]     ,,\ 
rilla — i  staple   commodity  of  the  Scottish  Isles  (Encyclopae- 
dia Arts    "  Kelp"''  and   w  Barilla" J  largely  used  in  th«  manu- 
facture of  the  finest  white  soap  and  glass— for  soda  water— -^    *' 


ACIDS.  29 

soda  powders  of  perfect  carbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid, 
rationale. 

Carbonate  of  Lime. — A  neutral  salt — natural  formation? 
of  it — referred  to   Mineralogy. 

Sub-Carbonate  of  Magnesia.  Light  and  porcus~al- 
kalim.  properties  slight — calcined  by  heat  how  calcined  mag- 
nesia differs  from  the  common  magnesia  alba — why  preferred 
for  d-t-lfcate  stomachs. 

Q3°  These  carbonated  alkalies  are  all  used  as  antacids,  to 
correct  sourness  of  the  stomach,  heart-burn,  he.  Also  em- 
ployed as  remedies  against  calculous  disorders.  (Brandos 
Quarterly  Journal,  Nos.  11  and  12J 

5.   Carburet  of  Iron.  *-j£*~- 

Plumbago  and  black  lead — composition — how  distinguish- 
ed— found  of  the  best  quality  at  Barrow  Dale,  Eng.  Difficul- 
ty of  finding  it  suitable  for  pencils — locality  in  this  state—*- 
Uses  for  pencils,  crucibles,  coating  for  stoves,  paint,  See. 

6.   Carburetted  Hydrogen. 
Extensive  combinations  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  beginning 
with  the  bodies  that  contain  the  greates   proportion  bf  ca 

(1)  Anthracite  or  incombustible  coal-  ol  mineral  origin— 
hard  coal — will  it  burn  in  a  common  fire  I  dots  it  hum  with 
flame  ? — uses  for  furnace  heats — Susqu^hunna  and  Rhode  Isl- 
and coal. 

(2)  Combustible  coal.  Contains  bituminous  matter — Coke 
—vegetable  origin — Richmond  >  oal — North- Carolina  co-d — 
N-w-Castle  and  Liverpool  coal — -value  to  a  country— -accidental 
firing  of  coal  mines-    rules  for  distinguishing  coalt 

f3)  Asphalt— concretes  on  the  surface  of  waters — Dead-Sea 
— -Hike  in  Trinidad  {Cleaveland  394^ — need  by  east p?p  nations 
in  embalming,Jand  as  an  irgr>  client  in  mortar  Cjamcson  2t 
364rJ — Mineral  pitch  or  petroleum — swims  on  tht  surface,  of 
certain  springs — abundant  in  Pennsy  !vai.ia  and  Qhio  called 
Seneca  oil — used  in  rheumatic  affections. 

Vegetable  substances  made  up  chiefly  of  carbon  r.iid  hydro* 
gen  with  oxygen  (carbon  and  the  eh  men's  of  w?.tcr.)  Hence 
vegetable  products  as  gums,  resins,  oils,  &;c.  constituted  of  the 
same  elements  in  different  proportions.  Pi 'portion  of  carbon 
constantly  diminishing  and  that  of  hydrogen  increasing,  through 
a  series  of  bodies  from  anthracite  to  ether — hence  carbur*  tied 
hydrogen  obtained  by  exposing  almost  any  of  thtse  substan- 
ces to  heat.  Mode  of  obtaining  it  for  experiment — rationale 
— carbonic  acid  how  removed — how  obtained  Irom  stagnant 
marshes  (Aikin  1,  250.     Henry  l,  236.     Gorham  i,  39  i. ) 


CO  ACIDS. 

\ 

Properties.  Flame — product  of  the  combustion,  carbonic 
acid  and  water — rationale — rapid  combustion  when  mixed  with 
air — explosion  when  fire/l  with  twice  its  bulk  of  ox\  gtn — ef- 
fects <m  respiration — huzaidous  attempt  of  Davy  to  breathe  it 
(Davy's  Researches.  Gorham  1,  696.J 

Heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  (Quarterly  yournal  8  337)— 
whv  called  ok-fint  gas — made  from  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol 
f£ja  Rationale — carbonic  at  id  and  sulphurous  acid  formed 
along  with  the  ol>  ficnt  gas  but  are  absorbed  by  the  water — 
pure  fl  .me. 

Cdrburetted  hydrogen  extricated  in  coal  mines — explosions 
— dreadful  accident  at  the  Felling  colliery  (Annals  of  Philoso- 
phy} attempts  to  prevent  explosion — steel-mills — Safety 
Lamp — princ;pls-»nalure  of  fl.ime  {Gorham  1^.504)  — impos- 
sibility of  communicating  an  explosion  through  small  aper- 
tures— rationale  {Gorham  1.  406  )  Gas  Lights.  How  made 
— materials  {Quarterly  Journal  7,  312,  &?  8,  J  20)  various 
products  of  the  distiliation  of  coal  [gas,  tar,  ammonia  and 
coki  ] — quantity  of  light  distributed  daily  by  the  London  com- 
pany « qu;il  to  half  a  million  wax  candjes — comparative  ex- 
pense— superior  convenience  of  the  gas  {Gorham  1,  409)  Phe- 
nomena oi  a  common  fire. 

III.    OF   PHOSPHORUS    AND   ITS  COMBINATIONS. 

1.  Phosphorus. 

Former  celebrity  and  distinction — from  what  substance  at 
first  obtained  (  Thomson  1,222)  how  manufactured  from  bones 
(£3°  These  are  phosphate  of  lime — pulverised  and  heated  with 
sulphuric  acid — filtered — what  passes  the  filter?  What  re- 
mains behind  ?  The  liquor  containing  phosphoric  acid  is  e^6- 
porated — the  solid  residuum  mixed  with  charcoal  powder  and 
exposed  to  a  violent  heat  in  a  furnace — what  takes  place  ?  * 

Properties.  Colour— consistence— melting  point — at  what 
temperature  does  it  take  fire  ?  Colour  of  the  flame — why  kept 
under  water — combustion  in  oxygen — product — luminous  ap- 
pearance when  exposed  to  air — why  ?  Characters  inscribed 
on  a  wall  in  a  dark  room — combustion  under  water — phospho- 
ric match  s — how  prepared — liquid  phosphorus  how  formed — 
glow-worm  or  fire-flv — phosphorus  dissolved  in  ether— effects 
when  taken  into  the  stomach  {Orjila  on  poisons  174.) 

2.  Phosphoric  Acid* 

Appearance  like  glas*: — extremely  sour— decomposed  by 
the  Voltaic  apparatus— rationale  {Gorham  1,  421.) 


i 

ACIDS.  31 

3.  Phosphates, 
Class  numerous,  but  phos.  lime  mostimportant,  why  ?     Al- 
kaline phosphates  much  used  in  medicine.  # 

&.  Phosphurets. 
Formed  by  uniting  solid  phos.  with  inflammables  and  alka- 
lies— phosphuret  of    sulphur  extremely   inflammable*-  phos't 
lime  decomposes  water  at  the  common  temperature   (Henry 
1,  321.) 

5.  Phosphuretted  Hydrogen. 
Procured  by*boiling  bits  of  phosphorus  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash — rationale — ( He%ry  1,  323  Gorham  1,  426_) 
*-- also  by  adding  bits  of  phosphorus  to  the  usual  mixture  lor 
hydrogen  appearance  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air 
— why?  (Gorham  1,  428J — also  when  a  bubble  of  the  gas 
rises  into  a  jar  containing  oxygen — extreme  combustibility — 
why  ?—  {Gorham  1,  429) — products  of  the  combustion — ignes 
fatui. 

IV.    OF    NITRIC^A.CID    AND    ITS    COMBINATIONS.  * 

Acids  of  which  the  base  is  nitrogen,  viz  :  • 

Nitric  acid,  Nitrous  acid, 

Nitric  oxide,  Nitrous  oxide. 

tfLfy^o-j  rrtLj  1.    Nitric  Acid. 

Name  in  the  shops— composition — how  proved  by  Caven- 
dish — (Henry  1,   270.     Aikin  2,  146) — proved  by  analysis. —  a 

proportion  of  the  constituents.  ^^-ffirrj?  &  1st .    !2r*si-  S^CsK 

Properties.*  Common  properties  of  an  acid  in  a  htgh  de- 
gree— effect  on  the  colour  of  the  skin — on  combustibles — on 
metals — manufactured  from  nitre  and  sulphuric  acid — ration- 
ale. 

Uses.  In  minting — in  lithography — in  copper  engraving 
as  a  chemical  agent.  V     rt    /t 

2.  Nitric  Oxide.  «l  v' '  ■    <J   is- 

How  it  differs  from  nitric  acid  in  composition — how  formed 
from  nitric  acid  and  copper — rationale. 

Properties.  No  acid  properties — effect  on  respiration-—. 
on  combustion — colour  wh>  n  mixed  with  oxygen — used  as  an 
eudtometrical  substance — mode  of  its  operation  (Henry  1, 
274.J  # 

3.  Nitroijk  Acid. 

Formation— colour— composition— powerful  in  dissolving 
metals* 


%%  ACIDS. 

$ 

*  4.  Nitrous  Oxide  or  Exhilirating  Gas. 
Composition — preparation — rational — action  on  combusti- 
bles—-son  animals  when  inhaled.     History  of  its  properties  as 
developed    by    Sir    Humphrey    Davy.     (Davy^s  Researches, 
Muvray  i,  Gorham  1,  32.1. ) 

Doctrine  of  Definite  Proportions  illustrated  by  ,the 
foregoing  combinations  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

{fcj°  While  the  base  remains  fixed,  all  the  higher  propor- 
tions of  ox}  gen  m  the  several  compounds  are  simple  multi- 
ples of  the  lower.     Thus, 

(Nitrogen.)         (Oxygen.) 
Nitrous  Oxide  is  comoposed  of  2  measures      1 
Nitric  Oxide  or  Nitrous  Gas      2  2 

Nitrous  Acid  2  4 

Nanc  A  id  2  5 

{Chemical  Catechism  45.     Gorham  1,    49.      Thomson  3,  22. 
Henry  1,  353.     Murray  1.) 

No  intermediate    proportions — do   bodies   combine  in   any 
other  than  definite  proportions  ?     Docttine  further  illustrated 
by  the  composition  of  other  bodies  consisting  of  different  pro- 
portions of  the  same  elements,  as  acids,  salts,  &  metallic  oxides. 
Cause  of  this  definiteness  explained  by 

The  Atomic  Theory. 
Structure  of  bodies  out  of  atoms  maintained  by  Epicurus 
add  Newton — revived  by  Dr.  Higgins  and  chiefly  illustrated 
and  ■  xtended  by  D  ikon  --his  idea  of  atoms,  that  the  atoms; 
of  the  same  body*  are  of  the  same  size  and  figure  ;  but  that 
those  of  different  bodies  vary  in  size  and  figure.  In  the 
foregoing  combinations, 

Ci.  of  Oxygen  forms  Nitrous  Oxide. 
J  atom  of  Nitrogen  J  2  do.  Nitric  Oxide. 

with  j  4  do.  Nitrous  Acid. 

(.5  do.  Nitric    Acid. 

{jjjf  When  two  elements  combine  onlv  in  one  proportion 
forming  only  one  compound,  it  is  assumed  that,  the  combination 
is  binary.  When  the  some  elements  form  several  compounds, 
the  first  or  lowest  is  assumed  to  be  binarv  Thus  i  atom  ot 
hydrogen  with  one  of  oxygen,  forms  ivafer — why  then  doe3 
the  oxygen  amount  to  7  times  as  much  as  the  hydrogen  in 
'weight  P  Ans.  Its  atoms  are  7  trmes  heavier  Hydrogen 
assumed  as  the  standard,  being  considered  as  unity,  and  the 
atoms  of  all  other  clem  nts  compared  with  it— hence  the  tela 
the  weights  of  atoms  ascertained. 


acids.  33 

Practical  utility  of  the  Atomic  Theory* 
Composition  of  a  substance  (its  elements  being  known)  de- 
duced from  calculation — experimental  analysis  thus  confirmed — 
Wollaston's  scale  of  chemical  equivalents  (Gorham  \\  54. J 

5.  Nitrates.^ 

Solubility  in  water — deflagration,.^^  /&  /^ 

I^itrat^of  Potash.  Common  names — found  native — 
caves  of  Kentucky  (Cleaveland  108,J  how  formed  in  caves — 
nitrous  soil  of  Spain  ( Aikin  2,  156. )  India — manufacture — 
mixture  of  wood  ashes — rationale — manufacture  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  chemists  during  the  revolution—result — 
artificial  nitre  beds  of  France — how  formed  (Aikin  1,  159. J 

Properties.  Form  of  the  crystals — fusion — action  on 
burning  coals  when  fused — deflagration. 

Uses.     In  the  manufacture  of   sulphuric  acid — in  preserv- 
ing meat — for  oxygen  gas — for  gunpowder. 
Gunpowder. 

History — Roger  Bacon — Chinese.  First  used  in  war  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy,  134  3.  Manufactures — ingredients — propor- 
tion of  each — preparation — how  mixed,  grained,  glazed, 
dried  —  defects,  to  what  owing — trial  of  the  quality — inferi- 
ority of  American  to  English  powder — cause.  Successive 
explosion  of  the  grains — effect  of  pressure — cause  of  the  re- 
port— gases  produced — production  of  heat — how  accounted 
for  (Murray's  System  2,  589.  J 

Pulvis  Fulminans.  Ingredients — how  made- — cause  of 
the  explosion.       ^^.-^""Z  /tL^+^r^cL  a/(<  f  fit.  * -^-v. 

V.  Of  muriatic  acid  and  its  combinations. 

1.  Muriatic  Acid. 
Why  so  called — how   obtained  from   salt — great  condensa- 
tion in  water — white  clouds  with  ammonia.     Nitro  Muriatic 
Acid — aqua  regia — celebrated  property  of  this  substance. 

2.  Muriates. 

Muriate  of  Ammonia.  Originally  brought  from  Lybia — 
how  manufactured  in  Egypt  ( 1  arke's  Essays  4,  346,J  from 
the  distillation  of  substances  containing  animal  remains. 

Uses.     In  dying   &c. 

Muriate  of  Soda.  (Salt.)  Focus  of  saltness,  derived 
from  this  substance — found  in  three  situations. 

(1)  Waters  of  the  Ocean. 

(2)  Salt  springs — of  Cheshire,  Eng.  (Aikin  2,  11 8, )  of 
New- York — of  Kentucky— salt  licks  (Cleaveland  115. ) 

E 


-34'  ACIDS. 

(3)  Salt  mines — of  Poland  ( Encyclopaedia  Art.  l  Wieliczd'J  / 
their  antiquity — known  600  >ears — 1000  feet  deep — curious 
figures  wrought  out  ot  the  solid  rocks — (Black.  2,  112. J — 
Salt  mountains  ot'  Cordova  in  Spain*— r500  feet  high — (Bake- 
toeWs  Geology)  salt  mines  of  Peru — (Jameson  2,  320. 
Humboldt *s  Personal  Narrative  2,  268  ) 

Rules  for  detecting  the  presence  of  salt. 

Manufacture  of  salt. 

1.  From  sea  water—  where  most  strongly  impregnated — 
mode  of  manufacturing  by  the  heat  of  the  sun — by  boiling — 
which  method  produces  the  best  salt — Scotch  Sunday  salt — 
(Black    2,  11 7 J — impurities  in  sea  water. 

2.  Salt  springs- — very  sirong — from  |to  |  lb.  per  gallon — 
{Cleaveland  115) — manufactured  by  boiling. 

3.  Ruck  salt — obtained  by  mining,  and  afterwards  dissolved 
and  crystiiiizcd  to  separate  impurities. 

Properties.  On  burning  coals — equally  soluble  in  hot 
and  cold  water — crystallizes  in  cubes. 

VI.  Oxy  muriatic  acid  or  chlorine. 

Formation  from  muriatic  acid  and  manganese— rationale — 
colour — hence  its  name— suffocating  fumes. 

Combinations.  (1.)  With  olificnt  gas.  (2.)  With  hy- 
drogen— forms  muriatic  acid — -rationale— (3.)  With  combus- 
tibles—  phosphorus  and  metals  inflamed  spontaneously— why  ? 
effect  on  vegetable  colours — bleaching — mode  of  disinfecting 
sick  rooms—easy  mode  of  producing  the  gas  in  a  tea  cup. 

(^7°  Explain  all  the  preceding  facts  on  the  supposition  that 
chloriiv  is  a  simple  body. 

1.  How  is  chlorine  formed  by  the  mixture  of  muriatic  acid 
and  manganese  ? 

2.  How  does  the  union  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  produce 
muriatic  acid  ? 

3.  Why  does  it  cause  phosphorus  and  the  metals  to  inflame 
spontaneously  ? 

2.  Chlorate  or  Oxy  Muriate  of  Potash. 

Formation — rationale.  {fcj°  2  salts  formed,  viz.  muriate 
and  chlorate — that  part  of  the  acid  which  goes  to  form  the. 
muriate  is  withdrawn,  and  leaves  all  the  oxygen  combined 
with  the  remainder — hence  this  salt  is  a  hyper — oxymuriate — 
(Henry  1,  311 J 

Violent  detonation  with  inflammables — (Murray  1.  Henry 
1,  31  J,  Chemical  Catechism) — why  trituration  or  percussion 
causes  an  explosion* 


METALS.  35 

VII.    OF   IODINE  AND   ITS  COMBINATIONS. 

1.  lodins. 

Discovery — from  what  substance  obtained — method  of  ob- 
taining it  by  lixiviation  and  sulphuric  acid— rationale 

Colour-- — name—scales — volatility — relation  to  the  galvanic 
poles — a  supporter  of  combustion  (Gorham  1,  258 )  test. 

2.   Hydriodic  Acid. 

Composition — hydrogen  united  with  iodine  either  at  a  high 
temperature  or  in  the  nascent  state — strongly  acid  (Murray's 
Syst.  2,  501. J 

3.  Oxiodic  Acid. 

Composition. 

Analogy  between  Iodine  and  Chlorine — effect  of  its  disco- 
very on  the  theories  respecting  the  latter  (Murray  \.) 

VIII.    FLUORIC    ACID   AND  ITS  COMBINATIONS. 

Obtained  from  Fluor  spar  (Fluate  of  Lime)  by  sulphuric 
acid — rationale — a  liquid  when  pure — corrosive  properties 
(Murray  1.  Gorham  f,  265. J  Action  on  silex — etching  of 
glass  (Thomson  1,  180. ) 

2.  Fluate  of  Lime — referred  to  Mineralogy. 

IX.    BORACIC   ACID. 

Obtained  from  borax  which  is  borate  of  soda.  This  salt 
found  in  the  lakes  of  Thibet.  Renders  metallic  oxides  more 
fusible — used  in  soldering.  /  /   , 

DIV.  VII.— METALS. 

Eagerness  of  mankind  for  these  substances — criterion  of 
civilization  estimated  by  the  knowledge  of  them  and  the  de- 
gree of  skill  in  working  them— importance  to  akhymists  and 
chemists. 

1.  Natural  History  of  the  Metals. 

(SillimarCs  Notes  to  Henry    2,  389.  J 

Metals  usually  occur  in  nature  under  disguised  forms— 
when  called  native — what  metals  most  frequently  occur  native  ? 
usually  found  combined 

1.  With  oxygen,  forming  oxides. 

2.  With  acids,  forming  salts. 

S.  With  sulphur  and  carbon,  forming  sulphurets  and  carbu- 
rets. 


36  METALS. 

Ores  make  up  but  a   small   part  of  the   globe— veins—are 

these  inclined  or  horizontal  ? — do  they  consist  entirely  of  ore  ? 

gauge    of  a   metal — most   abundant  in   rugged  mountainous 

countries- 
Credulity  evinced  by  the  vulgar  on  the  subject  of  metals  — 

divining  rods — real  indications  of  a  mine — boring. 

Mixing      Great  labour   at  the  beginning — h«<w   access  is 

gained  to  the  ore — mode   of  removing   the    ore — use  of  the 

steam  engine. 

Metallurgy.     "  The  art  of  extracting  metals  from  their 

ores."     Sorting,  stamping,  washing,  reducing  and  refining— 

each  defined. 

2.  Physical  Properties. 

Lustre.  The  brilliancy  of  metals  exhibited  by  the  interior 
— that  of  other  bodies  superficial — hence  useful  for  purposes 
of  ornament  and  for  mirrors. 

Opacity.  Peculiar  to  the  metals.  Is. gold  leaf  an  excep- 
tion. 

Density.  Greatest  in  the  metals — weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
cf  cork  contrasted  with  a  cubic  foot  of  gold  and  platina. 

Tenacity.     How  estimated — which  metal  has  the  greatest  ? 

Ductility.  "  The  property  of  being  drawn  out  into  wire." 
Great  difference  among  the  metals  in  this  particular — wire- 
drawing. 

Malleability.  "  The  power  of  being  extended  into  thia 
plates" — not  possessed  by  all  the  metals. 

conducting  of  caloric  and  electricity. 

i 

Fusibility.  Great  difference  in  this  respect — extremes, 
quicksilver  and  platina. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. 

Oxidation — effect  of  moisture — nature  of  rust — distin- 
guished from  tarnish — agency  of  heat  in  promoting  oxidation 
—calcination — how  accounted  for  on  the  Phlogistic  Theory — 
on  Lavoisier's  Theory — different  metals  combine  with  differ- 
ent portions  of  oxygen  e.  g.  gold  and  iron — the  same  metal 
also  combines  with  several  portions  of  oxygen  constituting  se- 
veral distinct  oxides  e.  g.  lead — colours— are  the  elements  of 
these  oxides  united  in  defnite  proportions  ?  (Murray  2,  16. 
Gorham  1,  56J — modes  of  naming  the  several  oxides  of  a 
metal. 

Reduction-—  how  performed.  Analogy  between  oxidation 
and  combustion — metals  combustible. 

Action  of  acids.  How  the  acids  act  in  dissolving  the 
metals — acid  decomposed— sometimes  the   acid  enables  the 


1. 

Gold. 

*0. 

Iron. 

2. 

Silver. 

1!. 

Lead. 

3. 

Piatina. 

12. 

Tin. 

4. 

Iridium. 

13. 

Zinc. 

5. 

Osmium. 

14. 

Bismuth. 

6. 

Rhodium. 

15. 

Antimony 

Y. 

Palladium. 

16. 

Arsenic. 

8. 

Quicksilver. 

17. 

Cobalt. 

9. 

Copper. 

18. 

Nickel. 

METALS.  £? 

metai  to  decompose  water — what  substance  is  then  giver. 
— -formation  of  metallic  salts — composition — what  acic' 
with  the  greatest  energy  on  the  metals  ? 

Alloys.      How  formed — are  the  ingredients  in  mechr. 
mixture,  or  in  chemical  combination  ? 

Enumerate  the  metals  in  their  order  (Murray]) 

19.  Manganese. 

20.  MoUbdenal    : 

21.  iungsten. 

22.  Chrome.    . 

23.  Tellurium. 

24.  Titanium. 

25.  Uranium. 

26.  Tantaliura. 

27.  Cerium. 

Method  pursued  in  treating  of  the  metals,  viz. 
Natural  History, 
Physical  Characters, 
Chemical  Characters, 
Applications  to  the  arts. 

OF     GOLD. 

Sol  et  rex  metallorum   of  the   alchymists — use    and    : 
dance  among  the  ancients — (1  Kings,  10.  1  i.    ffarke's  Es-fat/i 
5,  248) — regard  paid  to  it  by  the  alchymists — v. 

Natural  History.  Found  native — alloyed  with  silver, 
copper,  iron,  and  palladium — dispersed  through  hard  rocks 
or  iu  grains — extent  to  which  it  is  diffused—  sari  '  proportion 
of  gold  found  among  the  ores  and  sands— ^-ho-v  u.  i  ^y  ounces 
to  5,000  lbs.  of  the  ore  of  Chili — how  many  grkins  to  tl. 
of  sand  in  Africa— localities — Hungary  apd  Spa  •> — eastern 
and  west&n  coasts  of  Africa — California,  (Sonora,)  Mexico 
and- Brazil,  Ancient  Pactolus,  Rhine  and  Danube.  Is  the 
gold  of  rivers  always  brought  down  from  the  mountains  ? — 
separation  of  gold  from  its  ores — use  of  mercury.  ( A'ik'in  1, 
SIX.) 

Physical  Characters.  Colour — hardness — ductility— 
malleability— gold-beating  how  conducted— into  hota  many 
square  inches  may  a  grain  of  gold  be  extended  ? — thinness  af 
gold  on  gold  lace. 

Chemical  Characters.  Acted  on  but  by  few  chemical 
agents — why  it  does  not  rust — can  it  be  oxidized  by  heat? — > 
action  of  acids — two  oxides — colours — aqua  regia- — muriate 
formed-*-  rationale — action  of  muriate  of  tin  on  the  solution  — 


38  METALS. 

purple  precipitate  of  cassius — action  of  ammonia-—  fulminating 
goldfc — rationale — (Murray)  action  of  combustibles,  as  hy- 
drogen, phosphorus,  &c. — action  of  ether  on  the  solution — 
aurum  potabile. 

Applications  to  the  Arts.     Gilding  by  means  of  the 

-ethtnsd  solution— (Chemical  Amusement,  96.    Parkes,  551 J — 

standard   gold   coin — purity   estimated    by    carats-r-jewellers' 

gold — how  does  copper  affect  the  colour   of  gold — how  does 

silver  .? — pure  gold  useful  for  chemical  vessels. 

OF    SILVER. 

Known  to  the  ancients— abundant  in  nature — greatly  valued 
in  the  arts. 

Natural  History.  Frequently  found  native — some- 
times combined  with  arsenic,  antimony  or  sulphur— contained 
in  bad  ores — how  to  distinguish  native  silver  from  lead — lo- 
ca!i  ?es— mitv  s  of  Norway — of  Saxony — of  America — annual 
ptuciu  t  of  the  Mexican  and  South  American  mines — product 
for  three  centuries — (Jameson  3,  91.  ' Rees's  CyclopcediaJ-:— 
reduction — volatile  matters  expelled  by  roasting — use  of  mer- 
cury— great  labour  to  remove  all  the  foreign  substances — 
1,600  ounces  of  ore  yield  only  3  or  4  ounces  of  pure  silver — 
(Cieaveland,  442.J 

Physical  Characters.  Whiteness — called  luna — mal- 
leability and  ductility  compared  with  gold. 

Chemical  Characters.  Fusion — appearance  when  in 
the  melted  plat: — i  ombustion — colour  of  the  flame — not  sub- 
ject to  spontaneous  oxidation— '-tarnish-*— action  of  nitric  acid- 
nitrate  of  silver — appearance  when  crystalized — action  on  in- 
flammables— explosion  with  oxygen — rationale — combination 
with  ammonia — fulminating  silver — rationale — very  danger- 
ous-=-anoth<r  formed  by  the  action  of  nitrate  of  silver  on  al- 
cohol—expriments — action  of  mercury  on  the  nitribPsolution 
— Arbor  Duinse — formation  and  rationale — action  of  light  on 
nitrate  of  sdvtr — durable  ink,  how  applied — test  for  muriatic 
acid — why  ? — preparation  of  lunar  caustic — antiputrescent 
properties — {Black  3  353) — precipitation  of  metallic  sil  er  on 
copper — rationale. 

Applications  to  the  Arts.  Plating,  how  performed — 
sivering  of  dials  and  clocks—  {Black  3,  357) — utensils  and 
furniture  of  silver — -silver  coin. 

OF   PLATINA. 

Chiefly  obtained  from  South-America — in  grains  scattered 
in  sandy  districts — other  valuable  metals  associated  with  it. 


METALS.  39 

Colour — lustre — malleability    and    ductility — \£j°  Sped 
gravity. 

Acted  on  by  few  agents — henc^not  liable  to  rust  ojyf 
— solvent — infusibility — has  it  ever  been  fused^  in  a  furnace  i 
— hence  difficulty  of  uniting  the  grains   into  a  mass — general 
method  of  doing  this. 

Useful  tor  chemical  vessels — why  ? — porcelain  coated  \H 
it — crucibles. 

(£j°  Metals  separated  from  the  ores  of  Platina,  Iridium. 
Osmium,  Rhodium,  and  Palladium.  (Murray  2,  56.  Henry 
2,  44.) 

OF    MERCURY    OR    OJJICKSILVER, 

Extensive  examination  made  of  it  by  the  alchymists — their 
object — utility  of  these  researches  in  bringing  to  light  the 
properties  of  the  substance. 

Natural  History.  Met  with  in  but  few  places  ;  but  is 
abundant  in  those  places — Idria — Almaden — Guanca  Velica— ■ 
(Cleave  and  447.  Jameson  8,  39.  Aikin  2.  B:ack  2.) — an- 
tiquity or  the  mine  at  Almaden — Peruvian  vein  >;0  yards  in 
diameter — occurs  (J)  in  globules  (2)  in  a  sulphuret  called 
cinnabar — colour  of  this  ore — how  is  the  quicksilver  obtained 
from  these  ores  ? — iron  or  lime  employed  in  the  disiiilation— 
why  ? — mode  of  transporting  mercury. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Characters.  A  melted  me- 
tal— how  congealed — properties  when  congealed — at  what 
temperature — boiling  point — (Henry  and  Parkes''  Tables)— 
repeated  distillations  performed  by  Boerhaave — result — effect 
of  agitation — importance  of  mercurial  preparation  to  the  me- 
dical student. 

Oxides.  Black  oxide — formed  by  agitation — by  tritura- 
ting with  fat — office  of  the  fat — (Murray's  Materia  Medica  2, 
292) — only  4  per  cent,  of  oxvgen — properties  rendered  more 
active — effect  of  pure  quicksilver  on  the  system.  (Aikin  2, 
75.)  Red'  xide,  how  formed — contains  7  per  cent,  of  oxy- 
gen— how^t  may  be  separated.  (Q^This  }s  the  subst.irce 
from  which  Dr.  Priestley  discovered  oxygen.  Oxidation  by- 
means  of  nitric  acid — formation  of  red  precipitate—  (Aikin  2, 
78.  Murray fs  Materia  Med.  2,  240)T-more  corrosive  than 
the  mercurius  precipitatus  per  se. — used  rs  an  escharotic — 
change  produced  on  the  red  precipitate  by  triturating  it  with 
running  mercury. 

Action  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  preparation  of  the  super«sui« 
phate  and  sub-sulphate — turpeth  mineral. 


4-0  METALS. 

^  Action   of  muriatic   acid,  and  formation   of  calomel  and 

^■erosive  sublimate.     Does  muriatic  acid  act  on  metallic 

■Lsilvtr  ? — metal  first  oxidized  by  the  nitric  or  sulphuric 

■kros.  sublimate  prepavvd    from   sulphate   of  mercury 

wriate  'of     soda— rationale — excessively    poisonous- — 

Jon  Poisons,  19) — quantity   lor   a   dose — mode   of  de- 

■ing  it  in  a  supposed  poisonous  mixture. 

f^alomcl.  how  prepared  from   the    corros.    muriate — bow    it 

diff  rs  from  the  latter — how  they  may  be  distinguished. 

Mercury  with  su/phur — preparation  of  jEthiops  and  Cinnibar 
— {Black  3,  245) — vermillion. 

Fulminating  mercury,  how  formed — experiments. 
Mercury  in  all  its  preparations  poisonous,    but  made   by  a 
skilful  application,  extremely  useful  in  the  cure  of  diseases. 

Applications  to  the  Arts.  Amalgams  how  formed — 
use  of  mercury  in  reducing  gold  and  silver— amalgam  with 
zinc — with  tin — coating  of  mirrors — (Black  3. ) 

Of  copper.  j 

Natural  History.  Use  of  it  by  the  ancients — colour  of 
the  ores — localities.  Cyprus- — Cornwal — lAnglesea — annual 
amount  afforded  by  the  English  mines,  10,000  tons — (Jame- 
son 3,  1 9b, J — no  large  copper  mine  in  the  United  States. 
Fou.-id  native — also  with  sulphur  and  arsenic.  Reduction — 
roasting  and  fusion — sulphur  thus  afforded  for  market — 
(Black  3.  Aikin  1.  Chaptal  362. J  Rules  for  distinguish-' 
ing  copper  ores — resemblance  of  copper  pyrites  to  gold. 

Physical  Properties.  Colour — malleability — ductility — 
a  durai  le  metal — hardness — does  it  strike  fire  with  flint — 
use  for  powder  casks,  &c. 

Chemical  Properties.  Changes  wrought  on  it  by  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere — degree  of  heat  required  for  its  fu- 
sion— contain  a  great  portion  of  latent  heat — (Black  3*  Ai- 
kin 1,  333,J — combustion — colour  when  burning. 

Sulphuric  acid — sulphate  of  copper — blue  vitriol — how  ma- 
nufactured in  the  large  way — (Chaptal  363J — waters  con- 
taining it  in  solution^ — efTict  on  'roA.utej?jil§j«^>  -jm+uLf*~^ 

Nitric  acid — nitrate,— action  on  /comoustibles—^vith  phos- 
phor s  struck  on  an  anvil — wrapt  up  with  tin  foil — paper  wet  in 
the  nitric  solution  and  set  to  dry  by  the  fire — paper  wet  with 
alcohol  dipt  in  this  solution  and  inflamed — metallic  copper 
revived — ^vvhy  ? 

Muriatic  acid — dissolves  copper  with  difficulty — colour   of  j 
the  solution — Acetous  acid  or  vinegar — verdigris — how    ma- 
nufactured— use — action  oily  matter  on  copper — brass   can- 


rt  t 


METALS.  .        fjf^  tJ*Ar 

dlesticks — ammonia — dissolves    the    oxide — colour — test    fo 
copper — food  poisoned  by  the  use  of  copper  vessels — how 
tected — iron  applied  to  a  solution   of  copper — copper    fU: 
heated  with  sulphur—  phenomena  made   an    objection   to 
voisier's  Theory  of  Combustion. — (Black  3. J 

Applications  to  the  Arts.    Utensils  of  copper — a] 
— coin — brass— bell-metal  and  bronze. 

OF    IRON. 

Natural  History.  Abundant  in  nature — ores  numer- 
ous. 

Native  Iron*  Soft  and  malleable — remarkable  circumstances 
attending  it — how  regarded  by  the  natives — analogy  to  meteo- 
ric stones.  Hints  of  stony  bodies  descending  from  the  at- 
mosphere furnished  by  the  ancients  Weston  meteor — phe- 
nomena attending  it—  ( Memoirs  Cont.  Academy,  vol*  1.  Rees's 
Cyclopaedia,  Art.  u  Falling  Stones."  Henry  2,  401. ) — size 
and  velocity — fragments  detached — composition — (silex  and 
magnesia,  iron  and  nickel) — theories  respecting  the  origin  of 
these  meteors. 

1.  Thrown  out  of  volcanoes.  Objections— distance  from 
any  known  volcano — size — direction. 

2.  From  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  Objections — force  requi- 
site to  throw  so  large  a  body  2i>,000  miles — effect  of  such  a 
discharge  on  the  moon  itself — losses  that  planet  would  sustain 
by  supplying  m  teors. 

3.  Atmospheric  Concretions.  Objections — how  these  mate- 
rials were  furnished — why  they  did  not  descend  sooner — di- 
rection. 

4.  Terrestrial  Comets.  Analogy  to  solar  comets — heat  and 
light,  how  accounted  for. 

Iron  Pyrites.  Abundant — mistaken  for  gold — how  distin- 
guished— colour  when  arsenic  is  present — how  to  detect  this 
—uses  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphur  and  copperas. 

Magnetic  Iron.  Mistake  in  supposing  all  ores  of  iron  mag- 
netic— degree  of  oxidation — load  stone — iron  sand — species 
useful  for  bar  iron. 

Specular  Iron.  Why  so  called— its  appearance — colours — 
quality — localities. 

Red  Iron  Ore.  Colour — to  what  owing — stalactites — com- 
mon in  the  U.  States — afford  a  tough  iron — used  for  anchors. 

Argillaceous  Iron.  Mixed  with  clay — in  nodules— eagle 
stone  and  bog  iron — much  used  in  England. 

F 


42^  .  .  METALS. 

Manufactured     <Jf  Britain — Sweden— Russia — U.  States— 
ortb-  Carolina. 

duction-     Roasting — placed  in  the  furnace  with  lime  and 

^oal- — fused — removal  of  the  slag — rationale  of  the  whole 

s — mode  of  casting—running    into  pigs — manufacture 

iron — fusion  of  pig  iron — hammering — rationale  of  the 

sical  Properties.     Tenacity  cSmpared  with  lead — 
racture — ductility — malleability— increased  by  heat— 'Welding 
('Black  3,  165)  rationale. 

Chemical  Properties.  Oxidation — change  on  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere — rust — how  to  preserve  iron  from  rusting— 
effects  of  heat  and  formation  of  the  black  oxide — melting  point 
— combustion — effect  of  acid  and  saline  substances  in  corrod- 
ing iron — Acids  —all  act  on  iron,  strong  acids  with  great  ener- 
gy— why  appks  blacken  knives.  Sulphate,  formation,  colour, 
and  crystallization — effect  of  heat  on  this  salt  and  formation 
of  the  red  oxide  or  crocus  martis. 

[Medicinal  preparations  ol  Iron.] 

Ochres.  Used  in  painting — oxide  of  iron  an  extensive 
colouring  drug  in  nature. 

Sulphuret—  Lemeng's  Volcano — Carburet,  Plumbago  and 
Steel. 

Properties  or  Steel.  Hardness,  polish,  tenacity,  brit>( 
tleness,  {£jf°  definition,  "  refined  iron  united  with  carbon" — >.' 
carbon  in  a  state  similar  to  the  diamond — how  steel  differs 
from  cast  iron — manufacture  of  steel — bar  iron  stratified  with 
charcoal  in  a  trough — heated  in  a  furnace— blistered,  German 
and  cast  steel — mode  of  making  each — tempering  of  steel- 
degree  of  hardness  how  judged  of  (Aikin.l,  603.  Parke's 
Essays  4,  500  )  Cutlery — state  among  savage  nations — among 
ancient  civdized  nations  (Parke's  Essays  4.J  Sheffield  and 
Birmingham. 

Applications  to  the  Arts.  Extremely  numerous  and 
important. 

OF  TIN. 

Natural  History.  Mines  few  but  abundant  in  ore — 
Comwal  and  Banca — antiquity  of  the  Cornwal  mines — annual 
amount  of  ores  raised  from  them — ores  of  tin  mineralized  by 
iron  and  sulphur.     Reduction. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties.  Colour — hard- 
ness— malleability — tin  foil,  how  much  thinner  than  gold  leaf- 
cry  of  tin.     Oxydation— tarnish — has  water  any  action  on  it  s 


METALS.  4£ 

melting  point — rapid  oxidation  and  formation  of  the  grey  ox- 
ide— combustion — promoted    by   nitre — why  ? — formation    ot 
the  white  oxide  from   the    grey — putty,   used   as   a   polishing 
powder — enamel  of  watch  faces.     Acids — rapid  action  ot  ni- 
tric acid  {fcj°  when  the  acid  is  diiuttd  with  water,  the   rntbflml  A 
decomposes  both  and  ammonia  is  formed — rationale.     Murjj 
of  tin — decomposes  the  solutions  of  gold   and   throws    dfl 
the  purple  precipitate  of  Cassius — rationale. 

Applications  to  the  Arts.  Alloys  with  copper- — bron 
bell  metal,  cannon  metal  ancient  weapons  translated  «'  brass'' 
— hardness  of  this  alloy — manufacture  of  tin  plate — utility  tor 
culinary  vessels.  Composition  of  solder.  Pewter — composi- 
sition — lead  apt  to  be  in  excess— then  dangerous  to  keep  acid 
liquors  in  (  Aik'm  2,J 

OF   lead. 

Natural  History.  Found  in  veins  frequently  large  and 
extensive — ores  various,  but  the  sulphuret  or  galena  most  a« 
bundant — how  distinguished  from  pure  lead.  Mode  of  exa- 
mining a  specimen  of  le^|^£  with  the  blow  pipe. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties.  Softness,  mallea- 
bility— manufacture  oi  sh^et  lead — granulation  of  lead  and 
manufacture  of  shot.  Oxydation — tarnish,  melting  point  and 
formation  of  the  grey  oxide.  Changes  produced  on  this  oxide 
by  farther  exposure  to  heat.  Massicot  and  Red  Lead  or  Mi- 
nium how  formed — litharge  ( '  Aikin  2,  19J — tendency  of  the 
oxides  of  lead  to  vitrify  with  silex,  hence  their  use  in  glass- 
making  and  pottery.  Acids — acetate  of  lead — white  lead, 
composition  and  manufacture — action  of  lead  on  the  human 
system — waters  proceeding  from  lead  mines — pipes  and  ves- 
sels of  lead — diseases  incident  to  those  who  work  among  the 
oxides  of  lead.  Uses  of  lead  in  painting — remarks  on  the 
preparation  of  paints. 

of  zinc. 

Natural  History.  Ores  known  to  the  ancients,  but  not 
the  pure  metal — two  principal  ores  Calamine  and  Blend— ma- 
nufacture of  brass  from  the  ores — reduction  to  the  metallic 
state. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties.  Fracture,  malle- 
ability, increased  by  a  moderate  heat — fusion  and  formation 
of  the  grey  oxide — combustion  and  formation  of  the  xvhite 
oxide  called  flowers  of  zinc,  nihil  album,  and  lana  philosophica- 
Acids.     Strong  action.  ■,  . 

[Medicinal  applications  of  Zinc.]— -V  *    fr^Jth 


44  METALS. 

♦ 
Alloys.     Brass — composition  and  uses— Corinthian  brass 
composed  of  gold,  .silver  and  tin — (Encyclopaedia) — electri- 
cal amalgam,  voltaic  plates,  pinchbec,  prince's  metal,  tombac. 

OF    BISMUTH.     ' 


Itfot  found  extensively — fusibility — crystallization — alloy 
with  lead  and  tin  forming  the  fusible  metal — white  oxide  of 
bismuth — preparation  by  nitric  acid — medicinal  uses — a  cele- 
Hucd  cosmetic— sympathetic  inks  of  nitrate  of  bismuth. 

OF    ANTIMONY. 

Distinction  between  the  common  antimony  of  the  shops 
and  the  regulus  of  antimony--- appearance  under  the  blow 
pipe — brittlcness— imparls  th  s  character  to  other  metals— its 
celebrity  among  the  aichymists.     (Black  3.J 

[Medicinal  preparations  and  applications.] 

In  the  arts.  Alloyed  with  lead  and  bismuth  constitutes 
type  metal — reason  of  adding  the  antimony  and  bismuth  to 
the  lead.  .    •    /"~\ 

OF    ARS^HMP- 

Ores,  orpiment  and  realgar — how  to  detect  an  ore  of  arsenic 
— reduction  of  the  ores — fate  of  the  workmen — white  oxide 
of  arsenic — effects  on  the  human  system — (Black  3,  136. 
Orjila  on  Poisons,  ^5) — mode  of  detecting  mineral  poisons 
in  criminal  i  ases. 

[Medicinal  preparations  of  arsenic] 

OF    COBALT. 

Ores  found  in  Saxony  and  Connecticut — combined  with 
arsenic,  zaffre  and  smalt—composition  and  use  of  the  latter — 
use  of  cobalt  in  colouriug  gl^ss  and  pottery — nitrate  of  cobalt 
a  fine  sympathetic  ink.     (Aikin  J,  579  J 

OF    MANGANESE. 

Black  oxide — abundant — violet  colour,  with  borax  infusion 
—use  in  glass-making  and  bleaching — catfteleon  mineral. 


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